分析化学

分析化学是研究分析方法的科学，研究物质的化学组成及结构而不管其状态，研究其测定方法、步骤以及有关原理。分析主要有两种：
- 定性分析 - 以确定某一元素或化合物的存在
- 定量分析 - 以确定某一元素或化合物的数量化学分析的主要步骤包括： #取样 #确定需要分析的目的 #初步检验 #选择分析方法 #制备样品 #实际测定 #分析、计算数据分析最重要的是准确度和精密度，必须计算绝对误差和相对误差。

分析技术

- 波谱分析法 Category:化学 ja:分析化学 ko:분석화학 th:เคมีวิเคราะห์

科学

科学据其英文原词，首先指对应于自然领域的知识，经扩展、引用至社会、思维等领域，如社会科学。它涵盖两方面含义：1）致力于揭示自然真象而对自然进行理由充分地观察或研究。这一观察通常指可通过必要的方法进行的，或能通过科学方法（[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method scientific method]）——一套用以评价经验知识的程序而进行的。2）通过这样的研究而获得的有组织体系的知识。科学知识指覆盖一般真理或普遍规律的运作的知识或知识体系，尤其指通过科学方法获得或验证过的。科学知识严重依赖于逻辑。英文中科学([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science science])一词来源于拉丁文scientia，意为“知识”、“学问”。在中国，科学一词是外来词，以前译为格致，即格物致知，以格物而得的知识是科学。明末清初，来华的欧洲耶稣会传教士熊明遇的《格致草》、汤若望的《坤舆格致》等书的名称就使用了“格致”一词。在鸦片战争以后，依旧沿用这一称谓。中日甲午战争以前出版的许多科学书籍多冠以“格致”或“格物”之名。许多人认为，最早使用“科学”一词的学者大概是康有为。他出版的《日本书目志》中就列举了《科学入门》、《科学之原理》等书目。也有许多人认为“科学”一词是从日本传入的。辛亥革命时期，中国人使用“科学”一词的频率逐渐增多，出现了“科学”与“格致”并存的局面，五四运动时又称为“赛先生”(science)。在中華民国时期“科学”一词才取代“格致”。近代的科学，旨在理性、客观的前提下，用知识（理论）与实验完整的证明出的真理。是指以培根倡导的实证主义，伽利略为实践先驱的实验方法为基础，以获取关于世界的系统知识的研究。分为以自然现象为对象的自然科学和以社会现象为对象的社会科学。与艺术，哲学，宗教，文学等相区别。现代科学，还包括以人类思维存在为对象的思维科学。对于科学的核心特征或者说所谓科学精神，随着人类的进步，有不同的观点，目前一般认为科学具有如下特征： 1.理性客观：从事科学研究一般不以“神”、“鬼”、“上帝”为前提（一些科学家具有宗教信仰，但是科学本身是理性思维的结果），一切以客观事实为基础。 2.可证伪：这是来自卡尔·波普尔的观点，他认为科学的理论不应当在一切情况下都成立，必须存在一个错误的可能（即，当某种情况出现时，就可以说明科学理论是错误的），这样，我们就可以通过观察证伪的现象来验证科学理论的正确与可靠。 3.存在一个适用范围：也就是说不存在一个放之四海皆准的绝对真理。 4.普遍必然性：科学理论来自于实践，也必须回到实践，它必须能够解释其适用范围内的已知的所有事实。科学还可以分为从理论和应用等多个层次。在与社会进步的相互作用中，科学对实践的指导作用得到不断加强，科学体系本身也不断壮大，它对人类历史的重大影响日趋显著。邓小平提出了“科学技术是第一生产力”的论点。

参看

- 科学普及
- 伪科学
- 迷信
- 科学学
- 科学哲学
- 科学社会学
- 科學史
- 科学主义
- 科学文艺
- 科学实验
- 科学革命
- 科学归纳法
- 科学演绎法
- 科学理论
- 科学预见
- 科学模型
- 科学共同体
- 科学观察
- 科学分类
- 科学发现
- 大科学
- 科技

参考文献

- 史革新，辛亥革命时期国人科学观初探，http://www.booker.com.cn/gb/paper18/32/class001800001/hwz181595.htm 2001年11月6日
- 袁方文、柯晓莉，我们崇尚科学的什么？，http://www.gmw.com.cn/3_guancha/2003-11/031126/031126-22.htm category:科学 category:人类社会 category:学科 category:知识 ja:科学 ko:과학 ms:Sains simple:Science th:วิทยาศาสตร์ zh-min-nan:Kho-ha̍k

定性分析

定性分析的主要任务是确定物质（化合物）的组分，只有确定物质的组成后，才能选择适当的分析方法进行定量分析，如果只是为了检测某种离子或元素是否存在，为分别分析；如果需要经过一系列反应去除其他干扰离子、元素或要求了解有哪些其他离子、元素存在，为系统分析。定性分析包括色谱法。 Category:分析化学 ja:定性分析

定量分析

需要测定物质（化合物）中各组分的相对含量的分析方法为定量分析，一般需要先进行定性分析，确定物质组分后，再选择合适的分析方法进行定量分析，因为对不同的组分元素或离子，有不同的有效的分析方法，样品中是否含有干扰离子或元素，也是选择分析方法需要考虑的因素。由于定量分析可以确定组分的含量，所以有非常大的实际应用意义。 Category:分析化学 ja:定量分析

Category:化学

化学是研究物质的性质、组成、结构和变化的自然科学。参看Wikipedia:化学首页。 Category:自然科学 als:Kategorie:Chemie ja:Category:化学 ko:분류:화학 ms:Category:Kimia th:Category:เคมี

Swarm intelligence

Swarm intelligence (SI) is an artificial intelligence technique based around the study of collective behaviour in decentralised, self-organised, systems. The expression "swarm intelligence" was introduced by Beni & Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems (see also Cellular automata, Evolutionary computation). SI systems are typically made up of a population of simple agents interacting locally with one another and with their environment. Although there is normally no centralised control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local interactions between such agents often lead to the emergence of global behaviour. Examples of systems like this can be found in nature, including ant colonies, bird flocking, animal herding, bacteria molding and fish schooling. Two of the most successful swarm intelligence techniques currently in existence are Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). ACO is a metaheuristic optimization algorithm that can be used to find approximate solutions to difficult combinatorial optimization problems. In ACO artificial ants build solutions by moving on the problem graph and they, mimicking real ants, deposit artificial pheromone on the graph in such a way that future artificial ants can build better solutions. ACO has been successfully applied to an impressive number of optimization problems. PSO is a global minimisation technique for dealing with problems in which a best solution can be represented as a point or surface in an n-dimensional space. Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial velocity, as well as a communication channel between the particles. Particles then move through the solution space, and are evaluated according to some fitness criterion after each timestep. Over time, particles are accelerated towards those particles within their communication grouping which have better fitness values. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimisation strategies such as simulated annealing is that the large number of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of local minima. Swarm robotics is the application of swarm intelligence principles to large numbers of cheap robots. A particularly interesting application of swarm robotics principles can be found in the [http://www.swarm-bots.org SWARM-BOTS project].

Applications of Swarm Technology

Swarm Intelligence-based techniques can be used in a number of applications. The U.S. military is investigating swarm techniques for controlling unmanned vehicles. NASA is investigating the use of swarm technology for planetary mapping. A 1992 paper by M. Anthony Lewis and George A. Bekey discusses the possibility of using swarm intelligence to control nanobots within the body for the purpose of killing cancer tumors. Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple.

Swarm Simulation Links

- Boids - a flocking simulation produced by Craig Reynolds
- [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/kafka2ant.html Kafka 2 Red Ant] - Emergent and highly adaptive patterns using [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/ref_29.html Artificial Ant Colonies over Digital Image Habitats], produced by Vitorino Ramos
- [http://www.swarm.org/wiki/Swarm_software Swarm] - a generic swarm simulation package
- [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/Artsbot.html ArtsBot] - the Artistic Swarm Robots project, and two related works: [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/ref_37.html On the Implicit and on the Artificial] as well his [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/aswarm.html Swarm Paintings].

References in popular culture

Swarm Intelligence-related concepts and references can be found throughout popular culture:
- Prey, by Michael Crichton deals with the danger of intelligent nano-robots escaping from human control and becoming dangerous.
- Wyrm (novel), a novel by Mark Fabi deals with a virus developing emergent intelligence on the internet
- Jason X, a movie in the Friday the 13th series, had a swarm of nanobots repair Jason's damaged body.
- Hacker and the ants, a book by Rudy Rucker on AI ants within a virtual environment

Researchers

- Carl Anderson
- Payman Arabshahi
- Eric Bonabeau
- Maurice Clerc
- Sanjoy Das
- Marco Dorigo
- Russell C. Eberhart
- Luca Gambardella
- Vitorino Ramos
- Paolo Gaudiano
- Paul Kantor
- James Kennedy
- Arun Khosla
- Marco Mamei
- Alcherio Martinoli
- Rui Mendes
- Ronaldo Menezes
- Craig Reynolds
- Yuhui Shi
- Jagatpreet Singh
- Guy Theraulaz
- Robert Tolksdorf
- Franco Zambonelli

References

- Swarm Intelligence by James Kennedy and Russell C. Eberhart. ISBN 1558605959
- Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems by Eric Bonabeau, Marco Dorigo and Guy Theraulaz. ISBN 0195131592
- Turtles, Termites, and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds by Mitchel Resnick. ISBN 0262181622
- The Behavioral Self-Organization of Nanorobots Using Local Rules. by Lewis, M. Anthony, and Bekey, George A. (1992) Proceedings of the 1992 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

External links

- [http://dsp.jpl.nasa.gov/members/payman/swarm/ Swarm Intelligence Resources ]
- [http://swis.epfl.ch Swarm Intelligent Systems Group] at [http://www.epfl.ch EPFL] in Lausanne, a very active group in the field of Swarm Intelligent Systems
- [http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo NetLogo], a free software for multi-agent modeling, simulation, and the like, which can be used to explore the concepts of swarm intelligence.
- [http://www.swarm.org/wiki/Main_Page SwarmWiki ], a collaborative resource for agent-based modelling.
- [http://www.jcu.edu/math/wasp03/index.html WASP '03], a Workshop for Agent/Swarm Programming
- [http://www.computelligence.org/sis/ SiS ], the IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium
- [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/SIP06.html Swarm Intelligence and Patterns] - Series of International Workshops
- [http://www.kewlschool.com Cool School], free software that demonstrates fish flocking Category:Artificial intelligence Category:Optimization algorithms
- [http://alfa.ist.utl.pt/~cvrm/staff/vramos/MC2.html MC2 project] - Machines of Collective Conscience
- [http://www.aco-metaheuristic.org/ Ant Colony Optimization]
- [http://www.swarm-bots.org Swarm-Bots Project]
- [http://www.particleswarm.info Particle Swarm Central ]
- [http://psotoolbox.sourceforge.net Particle Swarm Optimization toolbox] An open source pso toolbox written in MATLAB. ([http://sourceforge.net/projects/psotoolbox sourceforge home for the project])
- [http://www.swarm-intelligence.com Audience Mass Interaction System using SI techniques ]

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