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Burns' Bog

Burns' bog

Burns Bog is the largest domed peat bog in North America and one of the largest in the world. It covers an area of about 40 square kilometers and occupies a quarter of Delta, British Columbia, about 25 km southeast of downtown Vancouver. It is named after the former owner, Pat Burns of Burns Meat Packaging. This unique ecosystem sustains a wide variety of flora and fauna, including 24 species of mammal and 150 bird species. Numerous zoning codes have been enacted to protect the bog from development and retain its original state in hopes of preservation for future generations. The bog is thought to be a major regulator of the region's climate, since there is no drainage and all the rain fall is ultimately evaporated. Highway 91 and flood control measures for nearby farms have cut off periodic flooding and drainage that previously fed into the bog. Only 60 acres (0.24 km²) of the bog are protected as the Delta Nature Reserve. Another 2300 acres (9.3 km²) of the bog are owned by Western Delta Lands Inc., which in the past has tried to develop the area but have been denied permission from the local and provincial authorities. The Burn's Bog Preservation Society is lobbying the province to buy the bog from the company, but in 1996 a $27.5 million offer was turned down by the Western Delta Lands owners, the McLaughlin family in Ontario, who also own Grouse Mountain ski area. The southern part of the bog contains a landfill for the city of Vancouver.

History

Peat was mined from the area in the 1940s, leaving large holes and drainage ditches in the middle of the bog. During the second World War, the U.S. military sought to use the peat to refine magnesium for artillery shells.

Notable fires

The bog has been the site of many serious fires, which can burn underground for months in the methane-rich peat. Major blazes occurred in 1977, 1990 (twice), 1994, 1996 and 2005. The 1996 fire covered Greater Vancouver in smoke and ash for two days, destroyed 1.7 km² and cost more than $200,000 to extinguish. On September 11, 2005, a fire broke out near the south eastern edge of the bog with its smoke and ash being blown many kilometers, permeating the entire Lower Mainland and reaching all the way to Nanaimo on Vancouver Island. The resulting poor air quality has had health consequences for some people with asthma or allergies. By the morning of September 14, the fire had expanded to 2 km², but the wind had shifted, offering some relief to asthmatics and allergy sufferers on Vancouver Island at least. Numerous large-scale fire-fighting techniques were employed to combat the huge blaze. Firebreaks were bulldozed and dikes were used to raise the water level in the hopes of extinguishing any of the fires that can burn underground for prolonged periods. The British Columbia fire service's Air Tanker Centre dispatched a fleet of air tankers to help extinguish the blaze, including four Firecats, two Corvair 580s and the Martin Mars water bombers, the world's two largest air tankers. On September 19, the municipality of Delta announced that the fire was in the "mop-up stage". About 30 firefighters remained on the scene and were expected to begin withdrawal on Wednesday, September 21, with ongoing monitoring beyond that time (see [http://www.corp.delta.bc.ca/EN/main/municipal/6231/archives/18512.html here]).

Reference

- [http://www.discovervancouver.com/GVB/burns-bog.asp Discover Vancouver]

External links

- [http://www.abcd.ca/bclife/otherImages/burnsBogFire/burnsBogFire05.jpg Picture of Fire from highway 91, Sep 11, 2005]
- [http://www.burnsbog.org/ Burns Bog Conservation Society]
- [http://www.blevinsphoto.com/burnsbog.htm Photographs from Burns Bog]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Vancouver&ll=49.121972,-122.975464&spn=0.067451,0.272993&t=k&hl=en Satellite image] (Google Maps)
- [http://www.canada.com/vancouver/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=672b1b25-943f-4c64-ba8d-994f9ab227ad Vancouver Sun article on the Sept 11, 2005 fire]
- [http://www.pictasso.com/BurnsBogFireSept2005-Day1.mov Video of the Fire Sept 2005] (Day 1). Category:Wetlands

Peat bog

A bog is a wetland type that accumulates acidic peat, a deposit of dead plant material. The term peat bog in common usage is not entirely redundant, although it would be proper to call these sphagnum bogs if the peat is composed mostly of acidophilic moss (peat moss or Sphagnum spp.). Lichens are a principal component of peat in the far north. Moisture is provided entirely by precipitation and for this reason bog waters are acidic and termed ombrotrophic (or cloud-fed) which accounts for their low plant nutrient status. Excess rainfall outflows giving bog waters a distinctive tan colour. Bogs are widely distributed in cold, temperate climates, mostly in the northern hemisphere (Boreal). The world's largest wetlands are the bogs of the Western Siberian Lowlands in Russia which cover more than 600,000 square kilometres. Sphagnum bogs were widespread in northern Europe. Ireland was more than 15 per cent bog; Achill Island off Ireland is 87 per cent bog. There are extensive bogs in Canada (called muskegs), Scotland, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, and northern Germany. There are also bogs in the Falkland Islands. Ombrotrophic wetlands - i.e. bogs are also found in the tropics with notable areas documented in Kalimantan. These habitats are forested. Extensive bogs cover the northern areas of the U.S. states of Minnesota and Michigan, most notably on Isle Royale in Lake Superior.

World's largest wetlands

The world's largest wetlands are the bogs of the Western Siberian Lowlands in Russia which cover more than 600,000 square kilometres. "The world's largest frozen peat bog is melting. An area stretching for a million square kilometres across the permafrost of western Siberia is turning into a mass of shallow lakes as the ground melts, according to Russian researchers just back from the region. The sudden melting of a bog the size of France and Germany combined could unleash billions of tonnes of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere." [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725124.500 newscientist]

Linguistic distinctions

The Term bog derives from the Irish language word for "soft". The Germanic word moor had the same meaning. However, with the two words now available in English use, their meanings are slowly becoming distinct. In England, the lowland moors are now nearly all drained. They are largely forgotten except in place-names like Morton. The word moor is still applied to acid peat-land on hill-tops, where given enough precipitation, the land need not be at all flat to form a bog, even on limestone. In some cases, though by no means all, drainage has now led to the oxidation of the upland peat. Nonetheless, the upland moors still largely retain their acid peat-land characteristics where the underlying soil is acidic. This is typically on acid sands, where the moor tends towards heathland, or on plutonic rocks like the granite of Dartmoor where suitable patches have been converted into grassland for pasture.

Bog habitats

pasture Bogs are challenging environments for plant life because they are low in nutrients and very acidic. Carnivorous plants have adapted to these conditions by using insects as a nutrient source. The high acidity of bogs and the absorption of water by sphagnum moss reduce the amount of water available for plants. Some bog plants, such as Leatherleaf, have waxy leaves to help retain moisture. Bogs also offer a unique environment for animals. For instance, English bogs give a home to the boghopper beetle and a yellow fly called the hairy canary. Some bogs have preserved ancient oak logs useful in dendrochronology and they have yielded extremely well-preserved bog bodies, with organs, skin, and hair intact, such as Tollund Man and Lindow man, buried there thousands of years ago after apparent Celtic human sacrifice.

Uses of bogs

Industrial uses

A bog is a very early stage in the formation of coal deposits. In fact, bogs can catch fire and often sustain long-lasting smouldering blazes, producing smoke and CO₂ causing health and environmental problems. After drying, peat is used as a fuel. More than 20 percent of home heat in Ireland comes from peat, and it is also used for fuel in Finland, Scotland, Germany, and Russia. Russia is the leading producer of peat for fuel at more than 90 million metric tons per year. Ireland's Bord na Móna (peat board) was one of the first companies to mechanically harvest peat. The other major use of dried peat is as a soil amendment (sold as moss peat or sphagnum) to increase the soil's capacity to retain [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/moisture moisture] and enrich the soil. It is also used as a mulch. Some distilleries, notably Laphroaig, use peat fires to smoke the barley used in making scotch whisky. These industrial uses of peat threaten the continued existence of bogs. More than 90 percent of the bogs in England have been destroyed.

Other uses

Crops of blueberries, cranberries and lingonberries are grown in bogs. Sphagnum bogs are also used for sport, but this can be damaging. Bog snorkelling is popular in England and Wales and has even produced the associated sport of [http://www.myra-simon.com/bike/bog-snork.html mountain bike bog snorkelling]. Llanwrtyd Wells, the smallest town in Wales, hosts the World Bog Snorkelling Championships. In this event, competitors with mask, snorkel, and SCUBA fins swim along a 60-meter trench cut through a peat bog. The last Sunday in July is [http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/index.php?section=places:events:bogday International Bog Day]. Bog is also a United Kingdom slang word for toilet.

Literature

Gothic Fiction is commonly set on the moor, an English bog. One example is "The Hound of the Baskervilles", a Sherlock Holmes story by Arthur Conan Doyle. "The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved", by P.V. Glob, is a classic study of archaeology. The book is about the iron-age culture of Denmark, and the victims of ritual sacrifice by strangulation. The corpses were thrown into peat bogs where they were discovered after 2000 years, perfectly preserved, down to their facial expressions, although well-tanned by the acidic environment of the Danish bogs.

Vancouver

Vancouver (pronounced ) is a Canadian city in the province of British Columbia. It is the largest metropolitan centre in western Canada and third largest in the country. The city's population is 545,671 and that of the metropolitan area is 2,186,965 (2001 census). [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-CMA-C.cfm?T=1&SR=1&CMA=933&S=3&O=D] Vancouver is one of the cities of the Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) and of the larger geographic region commonly known as the Lower Mainland of BC. The mayor is Sam Sullivan, NPA (see List of Mayors of Vancouver). The Port of Vancouver is significant on a world scale, and Vancouver is also the third largest film production centre in North America after Hollywood and New York. Vancouver will be the host city for the 2010 Winter Olympics, the 2006 World Junior Hockey Championship, the 2006 United Nations World Urban Forum, and the 2007 Memorial Cup.

Geography and location

Vancouver is situated at , in the Pacific Time Zone (UTC-8), and the Pacific Maritime Ecozone. It is adjacent to the Strait of Georgia, a body of water that is shielded from the Pacific Ocean by Vancouver Island. The city itself forms part of the Burrard Peninsula, lying between Burrard Inlet to the north and the Fraser River to the south. Some unfamiliar with the region find it disconcerting that Vancouver does not lie on Vancouver Island. However, both the city and the island (and their U.S. counterpart) are named after Royal Navy Captain George Vancouver of Great Britain, who explored the region in 1792. Vancouver has an area of 114.67km² (44 sq. miles), including both flat and hilly ground. Vancouver has a wet climate and is surrounded by water; while early records show that there may have been as many as fifty creeks and streams in the area, currently only four are left (see Bodies of water in Vancouver).

History

An Aboriginal settlement called Xwméthkwyiem, ("Musqueam"—from masqui "an edible grass that grows in the sea"), near the mouth of the Fraser River dates back to at least 3,000 years ago. Vancouver's ecosystem, with its abundant plant and animal life, provides a wealth of food and materials that have likely supported people for over 10,000 years. At the time of first European contact, the Musqueam and Squamish peoples had villages in the areas around present-day Vancouver. There is also evidence of a third group, the Tsleil'wauthuth, ancestors of today's Burrard Band in North Vancouver. These were Coast Salish First Nations sharing cultural traits with people in the Fraser Valley and Northern Washington. Hun'qumi'num', the downriver dialect of the Halkomelem language was the common language of the native community at Musqueam on the Fraser River on the south side of today's city. The Squamish and their kin the Tsleil-Waututh or Burrard Band, spoke a different, though related language, Skwxwú7mesh, which is similar to Sechelt and also spoken at the Squamish Nation's other main population centre at the town of Squamish. The most famous member of Vancouver's native community is indubitably the late Chief Dan George of the Burrard Band. The Native peoples of the Northwest Coast had achieved a very high level of cultural complexity for a food gathering base. As Bruce Macdonald notes in Vancouver: a visual history: "Their economic system encouraged hard work, the accumulation of wealth and status and the redistribution of wealth..." Winter villages, in what is now known as Vancouver, were comprised of large plankhouses made of Western Red Cedar wood. Gatherings called potlatches were common in the summer and winter months when the spirit powers were active. These ceremonies were an important part of the social and spiritual life of the people. Spanish Captain Jose Maria Narvaez was the first European to explore the Strait of Georgia in 1791. In the following year, 1792, the British naval Captain George Vancouver (1757-1798) from King's Lynn in Norfolk joined the Spanish expedition based at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island's west coast and further explored the Strait of Georgia, as well as the Puget Sound in the present day Seattle area. Simon Fraser was the first European to reach the area overland, descending the river which bears his name in 1808. Lumbering was the early industry along Burrard Inlet, now the site of Vancouver's seaport. The first sawmill began operating in 1863 at Moodyville (in 1915, expanded as a municipality and renamed "North Vancouver"; the name Moodyville still applies to the Lower Lonsdale district, though more as a marketing term than in common usage). The first export of lumber took place in 1865; this lumber was shipped to Australia. In 1865, the first sawmill on the south shore of Burrard Inlet, Stamp's Mill, began operations in what would later become Vancouver. The largest trees in the world grew along the south shores of False Creek and English Bay and provided (amongst other things) masts for the world's windjammer fleets and the increasingly-large vessels of the Royal Navy. One famous sale, of trees cut from the Jericho neighbourhood (west of Kitsilano), was a special order for the Celestial Emperor (i.e. of China) of a few dozen immense beams for the construction of the Great Hall of Heavenly Peace in the Forbidden City in Beijing. A former river pilot, John (Jack) Deighton, set up a small (24' x 12')saloon on the beach about a mile west of the sawmill in 1867. His place was popular and a well-worn trail between the mill and saloon was soon established - this is today's Alexander Street. Deighton's nickname, Gassy Jack, came about because he was known as quite the talker or "gassy". A number of men began living near the saloon and the "settlement" quickly became known as Gassy's town. In 1870, the colonial government of British Columbia took notice of the growing settlement and sent a surveyor to lay out an official townsite known as Granville. Granville was named for the British Colonial Secretary, the Earl of Granville, though everyone still called it Gassy's Town, later shortened to Gastown. The new town was situated on one of the best natural harbours in the world and for this reason it was selected by the Canadian Pacific Railway as their terminus. The transcontinental railway was commissioned by the government of Canada under the leadership of Prime Minister Sir John A. MacDonald and was a condition of British Columbia joining confederation in 1871. (The CPR president, William Van Horne, decided that Granville wasn't such a great name for the new terminus and strongly suggested "Vancouver" would be a better name in part because people in Toronto knew where Vancouver Island was but had no idea of where Granville was. Under its new name the city was incorporated on April 6, 1886. Three months later, on June 13, a spectacular blaze destroyed most of the city along the swampy shores of Burrard Inlet in twenty-five minutes. Things recovered quickly after the fire. The first regular transcontinental train from Montreal arrived at a temporary terminus at Port Moody in July 1886, and service to Vancouver itself began in May 1887. That year Vancouver's population was 5,000, by 1892 it reached 15,000 and by 1900 it was 100,000. The fire which destroyed the city was eventually considered to be beneficial, as the city was rebuilt with modern water, electricity and streetcar systems.

Scenery

Port Moody Vancouver is internationally renowned for preserving its natural beauty within the metropolis. Vancouver is home to one of North America's largest urban parks, Stanley Park. The city has all the urban amenities of a major city, as well as easy access to the Pacific Ocean and the mountains of the Pacific Coast Range. Real estate is largely limited by the surrounding mountains and water. The North Shore mountains dominate the city landscape, and on a clear day scenic vistas include the dormant, snow-capped volcano Mount Baker in the State of Washington to the southeast; Vancouver Island across the Strait of Georgia to the west and southwest and the Sunshine Coast to the northwest. The breathtaking views of the city and its environment have made it renowned for its beauty.

Skyline

When speaking of Vancouver's skyline, it is important to note that there are in fact three different skylines in Vancouver with substantial count of high-rise buildings. The two most prominent skylines, often featured in postcards, are perhaps the view of southern shore of Burrard Inlet and northern shore of False Creek. The skyline of southern shore of Burrard Inlet comprises buildings of Coal Harbour, and buildings along the Waterfront Road. It includes some of the city's most renowned architectural masterpieces such as Canada Place, Harbour Centre, the Marine Building, and Shaw Tower. The skyline of northern shore of False Creek include southern portion of West End, the three bridges connecting to Vancouver Downtown (Granville, Cambie and Burrard), Yaletown, Concord Pacific Place (North America's largest residential condominium project), and famous attractions like General Motors Place and Science World. The third and less commonly referred skyline in Vancouver includes buildings that line along the Broadway Corridor at False Creek south. This section of the city, although much more "mid-rise" than Downtown (average building height ranging from 50-80 m), contains some of the city's largest government buildings, such as Vancouver General Hospital (23rd tallest hospital in the world) and Vancouver City Hall. In the future, False Creek south should play a more important role in the city's skyline as the emptied industrial land in Southeast False Creek is developed in the coming years. Although Vancouver, per capita, has more high-rises than any other city in North America, Vancouver's skyline is relatively "mid-rise" by Canadian standards. Most buildings in Downtown have a height of around 90m-130m, with the tallest skyscrapers around 150 m tall. This is the result of a strict height restriction that is in place to protect mountain views. The View Protection Guidelines were approved on December 12, 1989 and amended on December 11, 1990, establishing a number of view corridors in the downtown with height limits to protect views of the north shore mountains from a variety of locations south of the downtown peninsula. Over the year, the view protection guideline had succeeded in preserving mountain views; however, various people have commented that Vancouver's skyline is now flat and lacks visual interest. Many agreed that there is a need for some taller buildings that reflect Vancouver's contemporary image. Others are worried about proposals for much higher buildings. Many are concerned that the natural setting and, in particular, the north shore mountains may be compromised as tall buildings proliferate. In response to these concerns and the desire to a clear City policy for considering buildings that exceed current height limits, Council directed staff to undertake a Skyline Study. In 1997, the Downtown Vancouver Skyline Study concluded that Vancouver's skyline would benefit from the addition of a handful of buildings exceeding current height limits to add visual interest to Vancouver's skyline. This led to the General Policy on Higher Buildings. The 1997 study noted that the opportunities for such buildings were restricted due to a limited number of large development sites in the downtown. There were at least five sites identified where buildings exceeding the 450 foot height limit are possible and at least two sites in the northwest corner of the Central Business District where heights up to 400 feet (exceeding the 300 foot limit) might be considered. Eight years later, five of the seven identified sites for higher buildings have been developed or are in the development application process. Currently, an Urban Design Panel has been set up for the purpose of reviewing building proposals and rezoning applications in the downtown area (especially those that significantly exceed the current height limits).
1990 1990

Climate

1990 Vancouver's climate is unusually temperate by Canadian standards; after Victoria, it is the second warmest major city in Canada during the winter. Summer months are generally sunny and dry, temperatures moderate, with the daily maximum averaging 22°C in July and August, but this is due to the influence of the Burrard Inlet and the Strait of Georgia, as the more easterly suburbs are hotter in the summer. Unlike most large Canadian cities, thunderstorms are very rare, due to the fact that the Pacific Ocean simply is not warm enough to produce the lift needed for those storms. However, they can occur at any time of the year-not just in summer. Spring and autumn are usually showery and cool. Rainfall is frequent in winter. Snow occurs in the surrounding mountains and the higher-lying areas such as the eastern suburbs, but less often at sea level, though there are winters in which the city receives enough snowfall to cause school closures, and even small amounts of snow produce massive traffic problems. Blizzards are rare but can incapacitate much of the Lower Mainland. One in 1996 resulted in over 60 cm of snow in Vancouver. The system was responsible for millions of dollars in damage. Although Vancouver is popularly known as the rainy city, only 166 days per year have measurable precipitation on average, and 289 days per year have measurable sunshine. However, winters in Vancouver can be gloomy, as the sky during this time is often covered with low altitude gray cloud. For a few nights near the summer solstice, the northern sky remains slightly lit by the sun, and nighttime lasts only about 6 hours. A wide range of plant species, including many exotics, can be found growing in Vancouver thanks to the mild climate. The increasingly popular Chinese Windmill Palm which can grow as high as 40 feet is a common sight in many areas, especially in the city's West End and beach neighbourhoods.

Air pollution

There is never any shortage of opinion that air pollution is getting worse over any major city. However, air quality in the greater Vancouver area has improved over the last several decades, due largely to actions by various levels of government (e.g., improved automobile efficiency, cleaner fuels). Despite such efforts, important challenges remain due to the significant population and economic growth that is forecasted for the region, as well as findings that health impacts occur even at current air quality levels (c.f. recent studies by the [http://www.bc.lung.ca/ BC Lung Association ]). Most of Vancouver's traffic and industry-generated pollution is blown eastwards and trapped by the mountains in the Fraser Valley, which does have serious air-quality problems as a result. The Greater Vancouver Regional District makes available real-time air quality measurements through their [http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/aqi/ Air Quality Index ]. Data from approximately 20 stations are updated each hour.

Living

Vancouver is a relaxed city with many diversions and easy access to outdoor activities such as hiking, cycling, boating, and skiing. There is a lively cultural scene. Some have called it a "city of neighbourhoods", each with its own distinctive character. It is consistently ranked at or near the top of the best cities in the world in which to live. Vancouver can be an expensive city, as housing prices are the highest in Canada. Various strategies aim to lessen housing costs. These include cooperative housing, suites, increased density and smart growth. Nevertheless, as with many other cities on the west coast of North America, homelessness is a concern, as is the growing gap between rich and poor. Vancouver's population density on the downtown peninsula is as high as 20,000 people per square kilometre. The density of the city itself is third highest of any metropolitan centre in North America, after New York City and San Francisco (it should be noted that a handful of cities in the New York Metropolitan Area are more densely populated than Vancouver). City planners in the late 1950s and 1960s deliberately encouraged the development of high-rise condominium towers in the West End downtown neighbourhood, which has resulted in a compact, walkable and transit/bike friendly urban core. A major downtown condominium construction boom throughout the late 1990s (mainly caused by the huge capital flow from Hong Kong immigrants prior to the hand-over) and early 2000s has resulted in real estate values gaining as much as 10-15% per year. Vancouver was reported in 2004 to have the third-highest crime rate in Canada. The same report noted that Vancouver's violent-crime rate was low but its property-crime rate (partially a consequence of drug addiction centred in the Downtown Eastside) was second only to Tampa, Florida in North America. One of the most common property crimes in the Vancouver area is automobile break-in; thus visitors are advised to conceal all items left in their car, and to use auto-theft protection devices.

Ethnic groups

Vancouver is home to people of many ethnic backgrounds and religions. Chinese is by far, the largest visible ethnic minority group in the city. Vancouver contains the second largest Chinatown in North America (after San Francisco's), and many multicultural neighbourhoods such as the Punjabi Market, Little Italy, Greektown, Japantown, Commercial Drive, and Koreatown which is developing around Robson and Denman Streets in the West End. Street signs bilingual in English and Chinese or Punjabi can be seen at these centres of ethnic concentration. Many immigrants from Hong Kong made Vancouver their home. This continued a tradition of immigrants flocking from around the world, to call Vancouver home. Statistics Canada data shows that 17% of the approximately 2 million people living in the metropolitan area are ethnic Chinese. Other significant Asian ethnic groups in Vancouver are Vietnamese, Filipino, Cambodian, and Taiwanese. Much of the European population consists of persons whose origins go back to the U.K. as it was the number one ancestry according to the 2001 Census, and until recently it was a truism that British Columbians with UK ancestry most likely have that directly from the British Isles, rather than via Ontario or the Maritime Provinces. Other European groups consist of German, Dutch, French [of both European and Canadian origin], Ukrainians, Italians, Yugoslavs, Greeks, and lately numerous Russians and Poles. There is also a sizeable community of aboriginal people in Vancouver as well as in the surrounding metropolitan region, with the result that Vancouver constitutes the largest native community in the province, albeit an unincorporated one (i.e. not as a band government). There is an equally-large or larger Métis contingent, with these being a mix of traditional "real" Metis from the Prairies and others whose mixed native/non-native ancestry qualifies them legally as Metis. Ethnic origin
- European: 1,200,010 or 63.5%
- Chinese: 332,560 or 17.6%
- Other Asian: 161,145 or 8.5%
- Filipino: 54,280 or 2.8%
- mixed ethnicity: 44,680 or 2.3%
- (based on single responses)

Lifestyle

The city of Vancouver has developed a reputation as tolerant city that is open to social experimentation and alternative lifestyles as well as being willing to explore alternative drug policies. The city has adopted a [http://www.vancouver.ca/fourpillars/ Four Pillars Drug Strategy], which combines harm reduction (e.g. needle exchanges, supervised injection sites) with treatment, enforcement, and prevention. The strategy is largely a response to endemic HIV and hepatitis C among injection drug users in the city's Downtown Eastside neighbourhood. The area is characterized by entrenched poverty, the commercial sex trade, and an AIDS epidemic that in the 1990s became the worst in the developed world. Some community and professional groups—such as [http://www.fromgrieftoaction.org/ From Grief to Action] and [http://www.keepingthedooropen.com/ Keeping the Door Open]—are fostering public dialogue in the city about further alternatives to current drug policies. The former mayor, Larry Campbell, came to office in 2002 in part because of his willingness to champion alternative interventions for drug issues, such as supervised injection sites. Although it is technically illegal, Vancouver police generally do not enforce marijuana possession laws, allowing several "marijuana cafes" to open. This has prompted some to nickname Vancouver the Amsterdam of Canada, or Vansterdam. Vancouver has a bustling music and art scene, and one of the largest gay communities in North America. The city is relatively free of racial tension; every ethnic group is represented in every social class. One result is a relatively high rate of intermarriage; trans-ethnic couples are unremarkable in any neighbourhood. About half the population is of Christian background, one of the lowest rates in the country. The vast majority of them being technically Protestant, although Vancouver, like the rest of British Columbia, has a very low rate of church attendance compared to the rest of the continent and the vast majority of the population does not practice religion seriously. Around 5% are Sikh, 3.7% Buddhist, 2.6% Muslim, and 1.4% Hindu. Within the growing Muslim population there is a large contingent of Ismaili Muslims who have settled in the area following their expulsion from Uganda.

Economy

Ismaili Ismaili]] Ismaili

International trade

International commerce and trade is a key sector for Vancouver's economy. The city has Canada's largest port and is one of North America's major gateways for Pan-Pacific trade. The Port of Vancouver ranks first in North America in total foreign exports and second on the West Coast in total cargo volume. [http://www.portvancouver.com/media/port_facts.html]

Film

Vancouver was the source of the sobriquet "Hollywood North", for hosting the production of approximately ten percent of Hollywood's movies. Many U.S. television and films series are shot exclusively in Vancouver. This has partly been because of the favourable Canadian dollar exchange rate.

Aviation

Vancouver International Airport is the principal international port in Western Canada and is the second busiest in the nation. As the premier gateway to Asia, it hosts many airlines' regional offices and their flights daily to Asia, Europe, and the United States. Vancouver is also served by the Abbotsford International Airport, fast becoming a reliever to YVR convenient for the Eastern suburbs and transborder United States. Several floatplane operators support both tourist scenic flights and practical transportation with extensive operations during daylight hours.

Natural Resources

As a major centre for the global forestry industry, Vancouver is host to many international forestry conferences and events, and the natural home of the massive BC forestry business. Companies such as Canfor and West Fraser Timber Co., the second and third largest lumber producers in the world, are headquartered in Vancouver. Vancouver is also a major centre for the mining industry, with the former Vancouver Stock Exchange (now absorbed into the TSX Venture Exchange) notable as the largest market in the world for venture capital in small to medium sized mining ventures. The highly speculative Vancouver market was sometimes criticized as too risky and even scam-ridden, which somewhat tarnished its reputation, though the long term effect on business has been negligible. Vancouver is the primary western ship loading point for sulphur refined in Alberta.

Banking and Financial

The headquarters for HSBC Canada is located in the Financial District in downtown, as are financial services giants RBC and TD Waterhouse, Bentall Capital, and regional offices of the worlds' most noteable institutions. Canada's third largest commercial entity, Jim Pattison Group is also based in Vancouver.

International relations

Downtown also plays host as a major centre for diplomacy and foreign relations. Most countries of the world have consulate or consulate general offices in the Central Business District. In fact, many major diplomatic conventions are hosted by the city - including the world famous G7 summit with President Clinton, APEC, and the World Trade Organization. While speaking of foreign diplomatic relations, Greenpeace has its world headquarters in the city just across the Burrard Street bridge from downtown. As a result of the powerful influence of green politics, Vancouver was among the first North American cities to declare itself a Nuclear Weapons Free Zone.

High tech

Because of its local universities and reputation for very high quality of life, Vancouver has a growing high-technology sector - including software development. Additionally, Vancouver is emerging as a world leader in fuel cell technology, accounting for 70 percent of Canadians employed in the industry. The headquarters of Ballard Power Systems (Burnaby), and the National Research Council Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation are both located in Vancouver. [http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/clusters/vancouver_e.html]

Tourism

Tourism is a vital industry to Vancouver. The Whistler-Blackcomb Resort, 126 kilometres north of Vancouver, is among the most popular skiing resorts in North America, and will be the site of the downhill events of the 2010 Winter Olympics. Grouse Mountain, Mount Seymour, and Cypress Mountain, each with a variety of summer and winter leisure activities, are within a 30 km drive of downtown and all have bird's-eye views of the city and the surrounding region. Vancouver's numerous beaches, parks, waterfronts, and mountain backdrops, combined with its cultural and multi-ethnic character, all contribute to its unique appeal and style. Over a million people annually pass through Vancouver en route to a cruise ship vacation, usually to Alaska. Of special note, the 1986 World Exposition was held in Vancouver.

Recreation

1986 World Exposition The mild climate of the city and close proximity to ocean, mountains, rivers and lakes make the area a popular destination for outdoor recreationists. Vancouver has over 2,700 acres (11 km²) of parks, with Stanley Park being the largest. The municipality also has several large beaches, many flowing into each other, with the largest groups extending from the coast of Stanley Park before reaching False Creek, and on the other side of English bay, starting in the Kitsilano neighborhood all the way to the University Endowment Grounds, which are seperate from Vancouver. The generous coastline provides for every type of water sport, and the city is a popular destination for boating enthusiasts. The nearby North Shore mountains are home to three ski hills - Cypress Bowl, Grouse Mountain, and Mount Seymour - each within 20 to 30 minutes of downtown Vancouver. Mountain bikers have created world-renowned trails across the North Shore. Three rivers - Capilano River, Lynn Creek, Seymour River - each within 20 minutes of downtown provide opportunities to whitewater enthusiasts during periods of rain and spring melt. Vancouver also attracts cannabis-oriented tourists because of the reputation of its indigenous drug culture, high-strength hydroponically-grown marijuana, and non-restrictive policing of drug use. Some coffee shops in Vancouver, notably near Gastown in the Downtown Eastside, and on Commercial Drive, allow marijuana and hashish to be smoked inside their walls. Nightlife in Vancouver had, for years, been seen as restricted in comparison to other "world class" cities, with early closing times for bars and night clubs, and a reluctance by authorities to allow for further development. However, Vancouver has, in the past few years, experimented with later closing hours and relaxed regulations, and an effort has been made to develop the Downtown core even further as an entertainment district, especially on and around Granville St.

Government and politics

Vancouver is governed by the ten-member Vancouver City Council, a nine-member School Board, and a seven-member Parks Board, all elected for three-year terms through an at-large system. Historically, in all levels of government, the more affluent west side of Vancouver has voted along conservative or centre-right lines while the working-class eastern side of the city has voted along left-wing lines. This was reaffirmed with the results of the 2005 provincial election. Though polarized, a political consensus has emerged in Vancouver around a number of issues. Protection of urban parks, a focus on the development of rapid transit as opposed to a freeway system, and a general concern about community based development are examples of policies that have come to have broad support across the political spectrum in Vancouver.

2005 election

In elections on November 19, 2005, council moved back to the right after a term dominated by the leftist Coalition of Progressive Electors (COPE) party. Sam Sullivan of the centre-right Non-Partisan Association (NPA) narrowly defeated Jim Green for the position of mayor and was joined by 5 of his party's members on Council. There was considerable controversy immediately after the election as one independent candidate, James Green, won a sufficient number of votes for many to accuse him (and the NPA) from intentionally stealing the election from Jim Green. In any event, the moderate left Vision Vancouver (VVN) brought 4 members to council with the remaining seat held by COPE. The NPA also won 6 of 9 School Board seats and 5 of 7 Parks Board seats and the remaining school and park seats were won by COPE. Vision Vancouver is a new party formed from moderate members of COPE who split from the party during the latter portion of its 2002 - 2005 term. Former Mayor Larry Campbell chose not to run for re-election and was subsequently appointed to the Senate of Canada.

2002 election

The leftist Coalition of Progressive Electors (COPE) swept the elections, winning 8 of 10 Council seats, 7 of 9 School Board seats and 5 of 7 Parks Board seats. The centre-right Non-Partisan Association (NPA) was reduced to 2 Council seats, 1 School Board seat and 2 Parks Board seats. The [http://www.vangreens.bc.ca Vancouver Green Party] won 1 School Board Seat. In the race for mayor, the COPE's Larry Campbell defeated Jennifer Clarke of the NPA by a margin of 58% to 30%. However, Campbell indicated in early 2005 that he would not run again in that fall's election, leaving the future of COPE and the current composition of the council in doubt.

Municipal elections

A proposal to change Vancouver's council elections to run on a ward basis (like most major Canadian cities) rather than its current at-large system was rejected by the populace in a plebiscite on October 16, 2004, possibly due to the increased costs of the ward system. It should be noted that only 22% of city residents cast a ballot in this referendum. Similarly, the plebiscite on whether or not to hold the 2010 Olympic Winter Games only drew 30%.

Provincial representation

In the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, Vancouver has ten constituencies: In the 2005 provincial election, the BC Liberal Party and the BC New Democratic Party each won five seats.

Federal representation

In the Canadian House of Commons, Vancouver has five constituencies: In the 2004 federal elections, the Liberal Party of Canada won four seats, while the New Democratic Party won one.

Transportation

New Democratic Party New Democratic Party New Democratic Party shore.]] The Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) operates a regional rapid transit system, under the auspices of the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority, known as TransLink, an organization which is responsible for all aspects of municipal transportation, including roads and ferries within the GVRD. There is frequent bus service throughout Greater Vancouver. A foot passenger and bicycle ferry service (known as SeaBus) crosses Burrard Inlet to North Vancouver, while a two-line automated metro system, the SkyTrain, the world's longest automated light rapid transit system, links downtown to the suburbs of Burnaby, New Westminster, and Surrey. An underground/elevated SkyTrain line running from downtown Vancouver to Richmond and the Vancouver International Airport by 2010 (see Canada Line) is currently under construction. An at-grade light rail transit to Coquitlam and Port Moody is also under construction. The West Coast Express, a commuter rail train serves Port Moody, Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, Pitt Meadows, Maple Ridge, and Mission. These services have an integrated ticketing system, making public transport inexpensive and efficient. In addition, private companies operate leisure-oriented passenger ferry services, around False Creek. HarbourLynx provides passenger-only fast-ferry service from Vancouver harbour to Nanaimo harbour on Vancouver Island. Bus service operates throughout the region. Most buses are wheelchair accessible and a large number carry bike racks, able to carry two wheelchairs and bicycles respectively. Some buses which operate from overhead electrical trolley wires do not carry bicycle racks. It is worth noting that Vancouver is among the last of a few cities in North America which still have trolley buses operating on their streets. Certain diesel commuter buses which travel to the suburbs have bicycle racks, wheelchair lifts, and comfortable high back Greyhound-style seats. Frequency in Greater Vancouver ranges from every few minutes within the City of Vancouver to two to three trips a day to Maple Ridge and Aldergrove. There is an extensive network of bike paths that provide east/west and north/south routes from one end of the city to the other. Each of the major bike paths has signal control to permit cyclists easy crossing of major arterial roads. Some of the bike paths are on streets that have extensive traffic calming measures such as traffic circles. Neighbourhoods are encouraged to plant and care for the circles and boulevards and add public art along bike routes. The Stanley Park seawall is also a popular recreational bicycle route. Municipal bylaws and geography have protected Vancouver from the spread of urban freeways, and the only freeway within city limits is Highway 1, which passes through the eastern edge of the city. All other limited-access routes entering the city (Highway 99, Knight Street, Grant MacConachie Way, the Lions' Gate Bridge, etc.) promptly cease being freeways once they enter Vancouver's city limits. Vancouver is served by Vancouver International Airport, located on Sea Island in the City of Richmond, immediately south of Vancouver. The airport (YVR) the second busiest in nation and one of the busiest international airports on the West Coast of North America. A third SkyTrain rail line connecting Vancouver to Richmond and the airport (with future extension possibly to Tsawwassen), the Canada Line, is under construction, with completion planned for the 2010 Winter Olympics, which are to take place in Vancouver. A heliport and seaplane dock on Burrard Inlet link downtown directly to Victoria and YVR. Vancouver is also served by two B.C. Ferry terminals, one to the northwest near the village of Horseshoe Bay, and one to the south, at Tsawwassen (the flagship terminal), linking the mainland to Vancouver Island and other nearby islands.

Rankings

Tsawwassen Vancouver consistently ranks in the top five in worldwide rankings of quality of life. Most recently, the city ranked first ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2299119.stm 2002], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4306936.stm 2005]) in a worldwide quality of life survey conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit. In a similar survey by Mercer Human Resource Consulting, Vancouver ranked second [http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/03/03/cities030303 (2002, 2003)] and third (2004). Vancouver has tied for first with the cities of Salzburg and Oslo among the UN chosen cities for highest living standards the last 4 years running. The city generally ranks first when compared to its Canadian and U.S. peers.

Sites of interest

- Notable buildings within the city include Christ Church Cathedral, the Hotel Vancouver (now part of the Fairmont chain, originally a Canadian Pacific hotel), the Museum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia (with a world-class collection of Native American art including work by Bill Reid), and the Vancouver Art Gallery (notable collections include several paintings by Emily Carr). There are several striking modern buildings in the downtown area, including the Vancouver Law Courts and surrounding plaza known as Robson Square (Arthur Erickson, architect) and the Vancouver Library Square (Moshe Safdie, architect), reminiscent of the Colosseum in Rome. The original BC Hydro headquarters building at Nelson & Burrard Streets, now converted into the Electra condominiums, was a radical open-floor concept skyscraper that won several awards. Another award winner was the "concrete waffle" of the MacMillan-Bloedel building on Burrard at Thurlow. A prominent addition to the city's landscape is the giant tent-frame Canada Place, the former Canada Pavilion from Expo '86 and including a Trade and Convention Centre as well as a Cruise Ship Terminal and the PanPacific Hotel.
- A collection of Edwardian buildings in the city's old downtown core were in their day the tallest buildings in the British Empire. These were, in succession, the Province Building, the Dominion Building (1907. both at Cambie & Hastings Streets), and the Sun Tower (1911, Beatty & Pender Streets. The Sun Tower's cupola was finally exceeded as the Empire's tallest by the elaborate Art Deco-flavoured Marine Building in the 1920s (even though its absolute elevation was lower than the Hotel Vancouver and other more uptown buildings). The Marine Building is known for its elaborate ceramic tile facings and brass-gilt doors and elevators, which make it a favourite location for movie shoots. Another famous Edwardian building in the city is the current Vancouver Art Gallery building, designed by Francis Mawson Rattenbury who also designed the provincial Legislature and the original and highly decorative Hotel Vancouver (torn down after WWII as a condition of the completion of the "new" Hotel Vancouver a block away).
- Currently topping the list of tallest buildings in Vancouver is One Wall Centre at 150 m and 48 stories. This will be eclipsed by several new skyscrapers[http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id=100997&bt=2&ht=2&sro=1] in the coming years, including the 2nd phase of the Bentall-5 office tower as well as the new 196 m tall, 60 storey Living Shangri-La tower[http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=176375], both currently under construction.

Interesting places

Some well-known neighbourhoods and other interesting places within the city include the following: tallest buildings in Vancouver
- the downtown peninsula, including:
- Burrard Street is home to high fashion retail, posh hotels, and—interestingly enough—the Financial District. There is an underground SkyTrain station (Burrard Station) near the end of the street, in the middle of the Financial District.
- Canada Place, a convention centre, cruise ship terminal, and an Imax theatre built over the harbour
- Chinatown, including the Dr. Sun Yat-Sen classical Chinese garden, the Chinese Cultural Centre, shops, restaurants, and open-air markets. The Chinatown-Stadium SkyTrain station is located less than two blocks from Keefer Street in Chinatown
- the Downtown Eastside
- Gastown, with brick streets and original buildings reflecting Vancouver's history, home to Storyeum
- Granville Mall, a pedestrian street, characterized by blazing neon signs and a 24/7 urban scene in the centre of downtown is a hip area of dance clubs, bars, theatres, concert halls, shops, and restaurants. It is also the main transfer area for many of the TransLink buses and has its own underground SkyTrain station.
- The "pot block" of 300-block of West Hastings, home to the BC Marijuana Party, [http://pot.tv/ Pot-TV], the [http://www.urbanshaman.net/main.html Urban Shaman], and the Museum of Psychoactive Substances.
- Robson Street, a hip and fashionable shopping and dining district
- Sports arenas BC Place Stadium and GM Place, home to major sports teams like the BC Lions and the Vancouver Canucks as well as major touring concerts and gatherings. The Chinatown-Stadium SkyTrain station is the closest rapid transit access.
- the West End, one of the most densely populated areas of North America, including access to English Bay, Sunset Beach, and Stanley Park including the Vancouver Aquarium
- Yaletown and Coal Harbour neighbourhoods (previously industrial areas, now reclaimed with high-end residential high-rises, dance clubs, restaurants, and bars)
- False Creek, one of Vancouver's first planned condominium neighbourhoods, on the site of what was the largest lumber mill in the city.
- Kitsilano, including Greektown, Kits Beach and the Planetarium
- Kerrisdale, a cozy, relaxed neighbourhood in the southwest, with sushi-bars galore.
- West Point Grey, the westernmost neighbourhood of Vancouver where you can relax on one of the many beaches.
- Queen Elizabeth Park (the highest point in Vancouver) known as Little Mountain. The park was at one time a gravel quarry. The Bloedel Conservatory and the Quarry Garden are situated near the peak.
- VanDusen Botanical Garden, a 22-hectare garden in the middle of the city with guided tours offered daily, major events include the yearly garden show and the winter Festival of Lights.
- Granville Island, including artist galleries and a bustling fresh food market. Tiny passenger ferries known as the "Aquabus" connect Granville Island to the downtown core.
- Commercial Drive ("The Drive") for Little Italy, arts, restaurants, cafes, and "multi-ethnic" shopping; also the nexus for the Millennium and Expo Skytrain lines (Commercial Drive Station and Broadway Station)
- Dickens, a small community in East Vancouver that stradles Kingsway between Fraser and Knight Streets. The area is culturally diverse and is known for a cuisine that is equally varied, excellent and inexpensive (especially Vietnamese and Chinese).
- Main Street from around 6th Ave to 14th Ave, and 25th Ave to 30th Ave are areas of coffee shops, vintage clothing stores, second-hand and antique shops, and artists' lofts, popular with Vancouver's hipster community. Now called "the Main" in an echo of the old Jewish quarter along Montreal's Boulevard St. Laurent.
- the Punjabi Market/Little India along Main Street around 49th Ave, for South Asian savours and treasures
- The University of British Columbia campus and adjacent parklands, including clothing-optional Wreck Beach, the huge Pacific Spirit Regional Park, the Museum of Anthropology, and the UBC Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant Research. The University of British Columbia also operates the TRIUMF particle/nuclear physics laboratory.
- The Pacific National Exhibition (PNE) grounds, located in Hastings Park, is the site of the annual fair of the same name held at the end of August. It also has exhibition buildings and the Coliseum, used for concerts and where the Vancouver Giants play
- Playland, sharing its location with the PNE, is the city's amusement park and operates from April to September every year
- Science World, built for Expo 86. (now known as the TELUS World of Science)

Colleges and universities

Vancouver and its adjacent communities are the home of three major universities, the University of British Columbia (UBC) and Simon Fraser University (SFU), as well as two community colleges and the British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT). BCIT provides polytechnic education and grants degrees in several fields. Each of these institutions has a small campus in downtown Vancouver to complement their main facilities. Vancouver Community College (VCC) and Langara College also serve the region's post-secondary education needs with career, trade, and university-transfer programs. Vancouver is also home to Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design. The Greater Vancouver area is also served by Canada's only wholly private 4-year institution, Trinity Western University, which is a small faith-based Campus in Langley. Vancouver Film School also resides in Downtown Vancouver.

Professional sports teams

Former sport teams

Media

Other names

The City of Vancouver also has nicknames
- The Growop
- Lower Mainland
- The Big Smoke (dates from 1880s)
- Lotus Land
- VanCity
- Van
- Hongcouver
- Vansterdam
- Vandia
- People's Republic of East Vancouver (refers to the lefto-radical flavour of the East End)
- New Asia
- The City (used in Whistler, the North Shore and

Zoning

In general, zoning is the division of an area into sub-areas, called zones. This article primarily concerns zoning in its urban planning iteration.

Land use

Zoning is a system of land use regulation which designates the permitted uses of land based on mapped zones, which separate one part of the community from another. Zoning regulations fall under the police power rights governments may exercise over real property. Theoretically, its primary purpose is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is used as a permitting system to prevent new development from harming existing residents or businesses. Zoning is commonly controlled by local governments such as counties or municipalities. Zoning commonly includes regulation of the kinds of activities which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities can be performed (low density housing such as single family homes to high density such as apartment buildings), the height of buildings, the amount of space structures may occupy by limiting how close a building may be from the edge of the lot, the proportions of the types of space on a lot (for example, how much landscaped space and how much paved space), and how much parking must be provided. Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances - exceptions to the zoning rules, usually because of some perceived hardship due to the particular nature of the property in question.

Origins and History of Zoning

New York City adopted the first zoning regulations to apply city-wide in 1916 as a reaction to construction of The Equitable Building (which still stands at 120 Broadway). The building towered over the neighboring residences and cast long shadows that diminished the quality of life for the people in the affected area. These laws written by a commission headed by Edward Basset and signed by Mayor John Purroy Mitchel became the blueprint for the rest of the country (partly because Edward Basset headed the group of planning laws that wrote The Standard State Zoning Enabling Act, which was accepted almost without change by most states) and by the late 1920s most of the nation would have developed a set of zoning regulations that met the needs of the locality. New York went on to develop ever more complex set of zoning regulations, including floor area ratio regulations, air rights and others according to the density-specific needs of the neighborhoods. Among large cities in the United States, Houston, Texas is unique in having no zoning ordinance. Houston voters have rejected efforts to implement zoning in 1948, 1962 and 1993.

Constitutional Challenges

There have been notable legal challenges to zoning regulations. In 1926 the Supreme Court upheld zoning as a right of U.S. states (typically via their cities and counties) to impose on landowners. The case was Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co. (often shortened to Euclid v. Ambler), 272 U.S. 365 (1926). The village had zoned an area of land held by Ambler Realty as a residential neighborhood. Ambler argued that it would lose money because if the land could be leased to industrial users it would have netted a great deal more money than as a residential area. Euclid won, and a precedent was set favorable to local enforcement of zoning laws. The Euclid case was a facial challenge, meaning that the entire scheme of regulation was argued to be unconstitutional under any set of circumstances. The US Supreme Court justified the ordinance saying that a community may enact reasonable laws to keep the pig out of the parlor, even if pigs may not be prohibited from the entire community. Since the Euclid case, there have been no more facial challenges to the general scheme. Beginning in 1987, several U.S. Supreme Court cases ruled against land use regulations as being a taking requiring just compensation pursuant to the Fifth Amendment. First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. Los Angeles County ruled that even a temporary taking may require compensation. Nollan v. California Coastal Commission ruled that permit conditions that fail to substantially advance the agency's authorized purposes require compensation. Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council ruled that numerous environmental concerns were not sufficient to deny all development without compensation. Dolan v. City of Tigard ruled that conditions of a permit must be roughly proportional to the impacts of the proposed new development. Palazzolo v. Rhode Island ruled property rights are not diminished by unconstitutional laws that exist without challenge at the time the complaining property owner acquired title. However, the landowner victories have been mostly limited to the U.S. Supreme Court despite that Court's purported overriding authority. Each decision in favor of the landowner is based on the facts of the particular case, so that regulatory takings rulings in favor of landowners are little more than a landowners' mirage. Even the trend of the U.S. Supreme Court may now have reversed with the 2004 ruling in the Tahoe case. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, who had previously ruled with a 5-4 majority in favor of the landowner, switched sides to favor the government that had delayed development for more than 20 years because of the government's own indecision about alleged concerns to the water quality of Lake Tahoe. Specific zoning laws have been overturned in some other U.S. cases where the laws were not applied evenly (violating equal protection) or were considered to violate free speech. In the Atlanta suburb of Roswell, Georgia, an ordinance banning billboards was overturned in court on such grounds. It has been deemed that a municipality's sign ordinance must be content neutral with regard to the regulation of signage. The City of Roswell, Georgia has now institued a sign ordinance that regulates signage based strictly on dimensional and aesthetic codes, rather than an interpretation of a sign's content (i.e. use of colors, lettering, etc.). On other occasions, religious institutions sought to circumvent zoning laws, citing the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993 (RFRA). The Supreme Court eventually overturned RFRA in just such a case, City of Boerne v. Flores 521 U.S. 507 (1997). However, Congress enacted the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA) in 2000 in an effort to correct the constitutionally objectionable problems of the RFRA. In the 2005 case of Cutter v. Wilkinson, the United States Supreme Court held RLUIPA to be constitutional.

Some limitations and criticisms of zoning

Land use zoning is widely considered an important tool in the treatment of certain social ills, a part of the larger concept of social engineering. Some jurisdictions attempting to manage growth have turned to comprehensive planning to coordinate the growth of housing, industry, commercial with the impacts growth has on issues such as transport, utilities, recreation, schools, fire protection and police protection.

Circumventions

Existing development in a community is generally not affected by the new zoning laws because it is "grandfathered", meaning the prior development is exempt from compliance. Consequently, zoning can only affect new development in a growing community. In addition, if undeveloped land is zoned to allow development, that land becomes relatively expensive, causing developers to seek land that is not zoned for development, and then seek rezoning of that land themselves. Communities generally react by not zoning undeveloped land to allow development until a developer requests rezoning and presents a suitable plan. Development under this practice appears to be piecemeal and uncoordinated. Communities try to influence the timing of development by government expenditures for new streets, sewers and utilities usually desired for modern developments. However, the development of interstate freeways for purposes unrelated to planned community growth, creates an inexorable rush to develop the relatively cheap land near interchanges. Property tax suppression measures such as California Proposition 13 have led many communities to disregard their comprehensive plans and rezone undeveloped land for retail establishments, desperate to capture sales tax revenue.

Social criticisms

In more recent times, zoning has been criticized by urban planners and scholars (most notably Jane Jacobs) as a source of new social ills, including the separation of homes from employment and the rise of "car culture." Some communities have begun to encourage development of denser, mixed use neighborhoods that promote walking and biking to jobs and shopping. However, a single-family home and car are major parts of the "American Dream" for nuclear families, and zoning laws often reflect this: in some cities, houses that do not have an attached garage are deemed "blighted" and are subject to redevelopment. Movements that disapprove of zoning, such as New Urbanism, generally try to reconcile these competing demands through creative urban design solutions that hark back to 1920s and 1930s practices.

Exclusionary zoning and housing affordability

Lot-size zoning has given rise to the rapid escalation of home values in many suburban communities. Massachusetts responded to this in 1969 with Chapter 40B, a so-called anti-snob zoning statute. Under this law, developers may circumvent local zoning boards in municipalities with less than 10% affordable housing. Similar laws are in place in other parts of the United States. However, such practices remain common among suburbs wishing to exclude those deemed socioeconomically or ethnically undesirable: for example, representatives of the city of Barrington Hills, Illinois once told the Real Estate section of the Chicago Tribune that the city's 5-acre minimum lot size helped to "keep out the riff-raff." On the flip side failure to mandate minimum lot sizes has resulted in the exploitation of communities by developers planting "townhouse rows" in areas that did not have the road infrastructure to support the high-density housing and associated vehicle traffic. The Washington DC area, Fairfax Virginia in particular is a prime example of a total failure of ethical zoning practices.

Other uses of the concept of zoning

Pricing

In many cities, fares for public transport depend on the number of zones in which a rider travels. London has recently zoned the central city for a toll called the London Congestion Charge (£8 GBP) to reduce traffic. Telephone service may be zoned so that calls to the immediate area are free, calls to adjoining zones incur a small toll and calls to the other side of the metro area incur a somewhat higher toll even though they may all be considered a "local" (non-long-distance) call. See Zone pricing.

Environmental controls

Zoning may be implemented in air conditioning systems so that heating and cooling go where they are needed. For example, a house may be fitted with two thermostats,one for upstairs and one for downstairs. Residential HVAC zoning is most often used in radiant heating systems in the floor or ceiling, or with regular radiators. Irrigation sprinklers are almost always zoned, so that water pressure does not drop when the entire system is turned on at once. It is also extremely useful for controlling flow rates to areas with plants that need more or less water, or frequency of watering.

Permaculture / agricultural design

Here zoning on a scale of 0 to 5 indicates the amount of effort put into getting a yield (harvest). Zone 0 is commonly just the house (sleeping and living done here). Zone 1 may be the immediate backyard, and the front drive. Zone 2 may be the lawn and herb garden which you visit every day, to play or to gather herbs for cooking. Zone 3 can contain the vegetable plot where you spend a couple of afternoons a week working. Zone 4 is an area that only requires input occasionally, maybe it is a 'wild patch' which you harvest for mulch, or a quiet space at the back of your garden where 'wild' berries are harvested. Zone 5 is commonly regarded as 'wilderness' where neither input or yield is sought, it is left entirely to nature.

Informational

Burglar alarm systems are often zoned as well, expecially in the case where different people will have different access levels to different rooms. Fire alarms are also sometimes done in this manner, though only in particular situations where fire cannot spread beyond a firewall or other method of containment. Railroad lines are zoned into blocks with block signals, with only one train allowed in a block at a time. Such traffic control is done in a similar way to air traffic control. In computing, Fibre Channel storage area networks are zoned similarly, with certain servers allowed access to only certain storage devices. See fibre channel zoning. In the Sonic the Hedgehog Video Games, Zones are the names of stages in a certain group. For example, the Levels which take place in a snowy climate are part of Ice Cap zone.

External links

- [http://www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/dcp/html/zone/zonehis.html New York City Department of City Planning - Zoning History] Category:Urban studies and planning category:Real estate Category:Real property law

Grouse Mountain

Grouse Mountain is a ski area/tourist attraction located in North Vancouver, British Columbia. Public access to the park is by gondola lift, the Grouse Grind hiking trail, or the Old Grouse Mountain Highway (foot and bicycle access only). The area at the bottom of what is now known as "The Cut" (one of Vancouver's most famous ski runs) is the original base of the mountain. It was here that the ski area's first lodge, as well as ropetow, was located. The road that was built to access this base, the Mountain Highway, still exists and is currently only used for maintaining the ski area. In 1949, the first double chairlift in Greater Vancouver opened, allowing skiing down the Cut from the top of the ridge. This lift was removed in the 1970s. Grouse Mountain claims this lift to have been the "world's first". This claim is disputed by at least several other ski areas, making authentication difficult. In 1951, just a few years after the area opened, a lift, probably one of the longest, was opened. This lift ran from a bus stop on Skyline Drive at the bottom of the mountain to the base of the Cut. This lift was also removed in the 1970s. When the original lodge burnt down in the mid-1960s, the government of British Columbia, seeing the possibilites for tourism, provided funding and permits for an aerial tramway up from the valley and new lodge to be built on the ridge. The Blue Tram was built by Voest and was opened and dedicated on December 15, 1966 by Premier W. A. C. Bennett. Also constructed in the 1960s and early 1970s were the Peak and Blueberry Chairs. The Inferno Chair, was built in 1976, and removed in late 2003, was one of the steepest ski lifts around, and also was in quite bad shape. 2003 The mountain was purchased from its original owners by the McLauglin family, who provided additional funding for the construction of the Red Tram/Super Skyride in 1976. They purchased total ownership of the mountain in 1989, and constructed Canada's first high-definiton theatre, the Theatre in the Sky in 1990, by expanding the original lodge. In recent years, the mountain has become something of a tourist attraction, as the area's dependence on skiing has been eased by the addition of a "native feast-house", "bear habitat", and high-speed quad lifts, as well as other things. Grouse Mountain is home to the Tyee Ski Club, an organization for training children and youth to become competitve alpine ski racers in Slalom_skiing, GS, Super-G, and Downhill competitions. The club also has a newer program for snowboarding racers.

Grouse Grind

Grouse Mountain is also the location of a very popular hiking trail known as the Grouse Grind. It is an extremely steep and mountainous trail that climbs 853 meters (2,800 feet) over a distance of 2.9 kilometres (1.8 miles). Although the trail is known for being notoriously gruelling for its hikers due to its steepness and mountainous terrain, it is popular among the outdoor enthusiasts in Greater Vancouver, and hikers often time themselves on the trail to see how long it would take them to reach the top. The average time to reach to the top is approximately 90 minutes, although hikers who are physically fit can finish it in 45 minutes. Sources: [http://www.cbc.ca/bc/story/bc_grind20040623.html], [http://hiking.grousemountain.com/grousegrind/stats]

External links

- [http://www.grousemountain.com Grouse Mountain]
- [http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/services/grouse-grind.asp Information on the Grouse Grind] Category:Mountains of British Columbia Category:Ski resorts in Canada

Landfill

:For other uses see: Landfill (disambiguation). Landfill is a waste disposal site for the deposit of the waste onto or into land (i.e. underground), including: Internal waste disposal sites (i.e. landfill where a producer of waste is carrying out its own waste disposal at the place of production), and a permanent site (i.e. more than one year), which is used for temporary storage of waste, but excluding: Facilities where waste is unloaded in order to permit its preparation for further transport for recovery, treatment or disposal elsewhere, and storage of waste prior to recovery or treatment for a period less than three years as a general rule or storage of waste prior to disposal for period less than one year. [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/1999/l_182/l_18219990716en00010019.pdf] In eras before the mid-20th century, landfills were the main method of waste management. In the late-20th century, alternative methods to waste disposal have been suggested, including recycling, converting to biodegradable products, incineration and cogeneration facilities, all of which assist in reducing the total amount of wastes disposed in to landfills.

Landfill classes

A landfill, based on the waste type that is disposed in it, can be classified as: #Hazardous waste landfill: waste disposal units constructed to specific design criteria and which receive wastes meeting the definition of hazardous waste. #Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill: waste disposal units which receive household waste or wastes from other sources having similar composition as household waste but do not meet the definition of a hazardous waste. #Inert waste landfill: waste disposal units which receive industrial wastes that do not meet the definition of hazardous waste and which are chemically and physically stable and do not undergo decomposition. #Construction and demolition debris landfill: waste disposal units which receive construction and demolition wastes, such as sheet rock, wood, metal, roofing material.

Landfill requirements

All landfills must be constructed and operated in accord with specific requirements, which are related to:
- Location or siting requirements.
- Stability.
- Protection of soil and water through: -Installation of liner and collection systems. -Storm water control -Leachate management. -Landfill gas management.
- Nuisances and hazards management.

Landfill subsystems

A typical landfill consists of subsystems such as the:
- Bottom liner system.
- Leachate collection and management system.
- Landfill gas management system.
- Monitoring system.
- Road network.
- Drainage system.
- Final capping system. Their function is to secure the normal landfill operations and to control the anticipated emissions generated mainly by the decomposition of organic matter, such as leachate and landfill gas.

Landfill operations

Typically, in non hazardous waste landfills, a technique is applied by which the wastes are: #Confined to an as small area as possible. #Compacted to reduce their volume. #Covered (usually daily) with layers of earth, in order to meet predefined specifications. specifications

Description of landfill operations

During landfill operations the waste collection vehicles or garbage trucks are weighed at a weighbridge on arrival and their load is inspected for wastes that do not accord with the landfill’s waste acceptance criteria. Afterwards, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front where they unload their load. After loads are deposited, compactors or dozers are used to spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles pass through the wheel cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to weighbridge in order to be weighed without their load. Through the weighing process, the daily incoming waste tonnage can be calculated and listed in databases. Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with earth daily. Alternative waste cover materials are several foam products and temporary blankets. Foams must be sprayed on. Blankets can be lifted into place with tracked excavators and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the landfill's life. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.

Problems during landfill operations

A number of problems can occur during landfill operations. The consequences of these problems, depending on their nature and severity, vary from fatal accidents (e.g. scavengers buried under waste piles) to minor infrastructure damage (e.g. potholes on access roads) and from environmental pollution (e.g. leak of major leachate quantities to the underground bed and/or aquifer) to simple nuisance problems (e.g. dust, noise). Analysis and advice on common landfill operational problems are available in [http://loma.civil.duth.gr].

Social issues

Some local landfill authorities have found it difficult to locate new landfills. These authorities may charge a "tippage fee" in order to discourage waste or recover the costs of site operations. Many landfills, however, are publicly operated and paid for by taxes. For many areas, a well-run landfill is a hygienic, inexpensive solution to garbage disposal. Poorly run landfills can pollute both air and groundwater. Environmental activists dislike landfills not only because of the potential for pollution, but because they permanently remove various raw materials from economic use. All of the energy and natural resources (such as water) that were used to produce the items "wasted" are lost. This loss is said to contribute to damage of forests and agricultural areas, including in less-developed countries that derive a majority of their export revenues from raw materials. However, recycled materials compete in the marketplace with new materials. Most of the discarded materials are low in value, making it difficult to profit from their sale. This in turn reduces motivation to recycle.

Landfill history

The "Fresno Municipal Sanitary Landfill", opened in Fresno, California in 1937, is considered to have been the first modern, sanitary landfill in the United States, innovating the techniques of trenching, compacting, and the daily covering of trash with dirt. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark, underlining the significance of waste disposal in urban society. More information on landfill history in the United States can be found in [http://www.forester.net/msw_0001_history.html].

References

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- Category:Waste Category:Waste management

2005

2005 (MMV) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. 2005 is the World Year of Physics, the Year of the Rooster in the Chinese calendar, and the International Year of the Eucharist in Catholicism. See also Wikipedia's almanac of events for this year.

Events

January

- January 4 - Death of the Governor of Baghdad, Ali Al-Haidri, assassinated by gunmen.
- January 9 - The same storm which pounded the US earlier in the month hits England and Scandinavia, leaving 13 dead with widespread flooding and power cuts.
- January 9 - Mahmoud Abbas is elected to succeed Yasser Arafat as Palestinian Authority president in the Palestinian election.
- January 12 - Deep Impact is launched from Kennedy Space Center by a Delta 2 rocket.
- January 13 - Terrorists enter into Israel from Gaza and open fire on civilians near border, killing 6 and wounding 5 others. Hamas and Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claim joint responsibility for attack.
- January 14 - The Huygens probe lands on Titan, largest moon of Saturn.
- January 16 - Adriana Iliescu gives birth at 66, the oldest woman in the world to do so. Adriana Iliescu.]]
- January 18 - Terrorists murder 1 person and wound 8 people in Gush Katif, Israel. Hamas claims responsibility.
- January 20 - George W. Bush is inaugurated in Washington, D.C. for his second term as 43rd President of the United States.
- January 20 - Ireland completes metrication.
- January 21 - In Belize's capital city Belmopan, the unrest over the government's new taxes erupts into riots.
- January 23 - Viktor Yushchenko is sworn in as the third President of Ukraine in Kiev, Ukraine.
- January 25 - A stampede at Mandher Devi temple in Mandhradevi during a religious pilgrimage in India kills at least 215, mostly women and small children.
- January 30 - The first free Parliamentary elections in Iraq since 1958 take place.
- January 30 - A Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules transport plane crashes in Iraq, killing 10 British servicemen. Iraqi insurgents release a video claiming to have shot the aircraft down using a missile.

February

- February 6 - The New England Patriots defeat the Philadelphia Eagles 24-21 to win their third Super Bowl in four years.
- February 8 - Danish parliamentary elections continue the center-right coalition led by Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen and his Liberal Party.
- February 9 - An ETA car bomb injures 31 people at a conference centre in Madrid.
- February 10 - North Korea announces that it possesses nuclear weapons as a protection against the hostility it feels from the United States.
- February 10 - Saudi Arabia holds its first ever elections for municipal authorities, in which only men are allowed to vote.
- February 12 - Fire devastates the