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化学热力学

化学热力学

化学热力学是物理学中热学在化学中的应用。 category:热力学 category:化学

物理学

物理学，简称“物理”。“物理”一词的英文physics出自希腊文φυσικός，原意是指自然。古时欧洲人称呼物理学作自然哲学。从最广泛的意义上来说即是研究大自然现象及规律的学问。物理学家们研究存在于不同空间与时间内的物质的状态，研究物质的结构和运动的一般规律。在现代，物理学已经成为自然科学中最基础的学科之一。物理学理论通常以数学的形式表达出来。经过大量严格的实验验证的物理学规律被称为物理学定律。然而如同其他很多自然科学理论一样，这些定律不能被证明，其正确性只能通过反复的实验来检验。 物理学与其他许多自然科学息息相关，如化学、生物、天文和地质等。特别是化学。化学与某些物理学领域的关系深远，如量子力学、热力学和电磁学。 以下是物理学的主要附属领域以及主要学说：

物理学简史

基础理论

尽管物理学的研究范围十分广泛，相应的理论也很众多，但有一些理论被证明是最基本的，其正确性是被普遍接受的。这些理论被看作是物理学的中心学说和基础理论。他们也是成为一个物理学家所必备的知识。

主要领域

物理学的研究领域主要依据研究对象的尺度划分。

相关领域


- 应用学科：声学 - 电子学 - 材料物理学 - 高分子物理学
- 交叉学科：计算物理学 -数学物理 - 物理化学 - 生物物理学

相关参考条目


- 基本物理量和国际单位：国际标准基准单位 - 国际标准导出单位
- 物理学常量和定律：物理学常量 - 物理学定律列表
- 物理学史：物理学家列表 - 诺贝尔物理学奖

外部链接


- [http://interactions.org/quantumdiaries/index.html 量子日记]——聚合全世界9个国家8种语言的物理学家的研究动态 Category:物理学 Category:自然科学 als:Physik ja:物理学 ko:물리학 ms:Fizik simple:Physics th:ฟิสิกส์ zh-min-nan:Bu̍t-lí-ha̍k

热学

热学又称热物理学，是研究热现象的科学。 热学一般分为热力学和统计力学两部分，前者是建立在实验基础上的宏观理论，后者是建立在量子力学和数学统计上的微观理论。 Category:热学

化学

化学研究物质的性质、组成、结构和变化的科学。中国古代在陶瓷、染色、酿造、造纸、火药等化学工艺方面成就杰出。 化學的早期歷史主要都是與金屬的提取和處理有關。2000年前，人類己廣泛使用金，銀，汞(水銀)，銅，鐵和青銅。 中国古代的炼丹术，西方古代的炼金术，就部分含有化学的雏形，并对近代化学的形成、发展有重大意义。 1800年裏(公元前300-1500年)，煉金術士的主要興趣是將一些便宜的金屬轉化成黃金。跟着的一百年是醫療化學的世紀,因為那時候化學家主要的工作是製造藥物。 古化學家收集了很多不同物質的資料。但是化學的發展到了16世紀還是很慢。在17世紀出現了好幾位大化學家，其中之一是罗伯特·波义耳，他被尊崇為化學之父。 在這之後，很多新發現一個接着一個的出現。到了1850年，化學己與現在所熟知的甚為相似。 当前的化学已从改造天然物质、仿制天然物质向设计功能物质方向迈进。在分子水平上设计制造具有直接功能（如：分辨功能、记忆功能）的材料已不是空想。

学科分类


- 无机化学
  - 元素化学
  - 无机合成化学
  - 配位化学
    - 配位聚合物化学
  - 无机固態化学
  - 有机金属化学
  - 生物无机化学
- 有机化学
  - 天然有机化学
  - 有机合成化学
  - 元素有机化学
  - 物理有机化学
  - 有机分析
    - 有機光譜學
      - 紅外光譜學
      - 核磁共振光譜學
      - 紫外光可見光光譜學
- 物理化学
  - 化学热力学
  - 溶液的性质和溶液理论
  - 结构化学
  - 量子化学
  - 磁化学
  - 晶体化学
  - 化学动力学
  - 催化化学
  - 热化学
  - 光化学
- 分析化学
  - 定性分析
  - 定量分析
  - 仪器分析
    - 电化学分析
    - 光学分析
    - 放射化学分析
  - 结构分析
    - 官能团分析
    - 立体化学分析
- 高分子化学
  - 高分子合成
  - 天然高分子
  - 高分子物理化学
  - 高分子物理
- 放射化学
  - 放射性元素
  - 核化学
  - 放射分析化学
  - 同位素化学
  - 辐射化学
  - 核燃料、反应堆和裂变产物化学
- 其他分支
  - 计算化学
  - 生物化学
  - 地球化学
  - 海洋化学
  - 大气化学
  - 环境化学
  - 宇宙化学
  - 星际化学
  - 药物化学
  - 农业化学
  - 石油化学
  - 木材化学
  - 土壤化学
  - 化学分类学
  - 化学胚胎学
  - 化学工程
  - 煤化学
  - 食品化学
  - 化学地理学
  - 天体化学
  - 岩石化学
  - 空间化学
  - 化学加工
  - 石油化工
  - 化学史
  - 电化学

参看


- 诺贝尔化学奖
- 元素列表
- 化学工业
- 化学品列表
- 化学术语列表
- 元素周期表
- 化学家 Category:化学Category:自然科学 als:Chemie ja:化学 ko:화학 ms:Kimia simple:Chemistry th:เคมี

Fastrak

:For the Lionel model railroad product, see FasTrack (with a "c"). FasTrack FasTrack FasTrak is an electronic toll collection system in the state of California in the United States. The system is designed to eliminate the need for cars to stop to pay at toll booths, thus decreasing the traffic traditionally associated with toll roads. Its use of technology to improve transit is in line with the U.S. Department of Transportation's Intelligent Transportation Systems initiative.

Concept

Intelligent Transportation Systems FasTrak uses RFID technology to read data from a transponder placed in a vehicle (usually mounted by velcro strips to the windshield) moving at speeds that may exceed 70 m.p.h. The RFID transponder in each vehicle is associated with a prepaid account; each time the vehicle passes underneath a toll collection site, the account is debited to pay the toll. If a vehicle does not have a transponder, the system uses automatic number plate recognition to take photos of the vehicle and its license plate for processing. Anybody with a FasTrak transponder can use it to pay tolls on any California toll road or bridge using the system. But the state encourages people to open their accounts with the local agency in charge of the toll road that they use the most. A similar toll collection system (EZ-Pass) is used on the East Coast from Virginia to Maine and another similar system is used in Melbourne, Australia on the CityLink tollway.

Toll roads and bridges that use FasTrak

:As of February 2005

Bridges


- Antioch Bridge
- Benicia-Martinez Bridge
- Carquinez Bridge
- Dumbarton Bridge
- Golden Gate Bridge
- Richmond-San Rafael Bridge
- San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
- San Mateo-Hayward Bridge

High-occupancy toll lanes


- 91 Express Lanes
- Interstate 15, San Diego

Toll Roads


- Eastern Toll Road
- Foothill Toll Road
- San Joaquin Hills Toll Road

Trivia

San Joaquin Hills Toll Road
- FasTrak is a trademark of the Transportation Corridor Agencies, not Caltrans or California's state government as some people think. TCA, who administers the Orange County toll roads, was the first local agency to finance the FasTrak system. The California legislature later made FasTrak the standard system throughout the state.
- FasTrak was made the standard system throughout California primarily because the state's toll roads and bridges are run by different government agencies. The Golden Gate Bridge is maintained by a separate agency than from the rest of the San Francisco Bay Area bridges. Likewise, the Highway 91 HOT lanes and the Orange County toll roads are run by different agencies. Lawmakers did not want either Bay Area or Orange County residents to have to carry two different transponders.
- The 17 Mile Drive is privately owned and operated and thus not required to use the FasTrak system.

See also


- 5-1-1, 511.org - San Francisco Bay Area transit information
- California Department of Transportation

References


- [http://www.bayareafastrak.org/ Bay Area FasTrak System]
- [http://argo.sandag.org/fastrak/ Interstate 15 Express Lanes]
- [http://www.91expresslanes.com/ 91 Express Lanes]
- [http://www.thetollroads.com/ Transportation Corridor Agencies] -- administers the Orange County toll roads. Category:Electronic toll collection Category:Transportation in California

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