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宇宙化学

宇宙化学

宇宙化学, 為一門探討元素與太陽系起源的科學。利用隕石與行星際微塵(IDP)中的同位素異常，研究在太陽系中元素與生命的起源。 Category:化学 Category:天文学 ja:宇宙化学

元素

: 這裡討論化學元素。數學上的元素，請參閱集合。 元素指自然界中一百多种基本的金属和非金属物质，它们只由一种原子组成，其原子中的每一核子具有同样数量的質子，用一般的化学方法不能使之变得更为简单，并且单独地或组合地构成一切物质。是化学元素的简称。

命名

中文命名

元素以部首来表示常溫(298K)時之物态：
- “钅”为固体金属。例：铜、铑
- “石”为类金属。例：硅、碳
- “--”为气体。例：氧、氟
- “氵”和“水”为液体。例：汞、溴除了从古代中国就发现而且常用的元素（金、银、铜、铁、铂、锡、硫、碳、硼、汞、铅），元素的名称是十九、二十世纪创造的，组成由个部首和表示读音的部分。读音部分几乎全部是大约根据欧洲和北美洲现代或中古化学家或地方的名称（参见#欧文命名）的第一个音节，例如：
- Er（Erbium）＝钅＋耳→铒
- Nd（Neodymium，）＝钅＋女→钕
- Eu（Europium）＝钅＋有→铕
- Ka（Kalium）＝钅＋甲→钾
- Na（Natrium）＝钅＋内→钠
- Sb（Stibium）＝钅＋弟→锑（用第一音节的一部分）
- I（Iodine）＝石＋典→碘（用最后音节）
- Ar（Argon）＝--＋亚→氩（用第一音节的一部分）少数部分元素中文名字是描述特色：
- 溴：味道臭
- 氯：颜色绿
- 氢：重量轻
- 氮：“淡”取冲淡空气之意
- 磷：发磷光或磷火
- 氧：“养”取支持生命之意

欧文命名

因为欧洲语文有密切的关系，除了那些各语文从远古就知的，所用的元素名称都是非常类似，因为科学名称都来源于新拉丁文。大部分元素结尾是“-ium”，一些罗马语系语文结尾“-io”。例如，钷在常见欧文是：
- 新拉丁文、英文、德文、荷兰文、丹麦文、瑞典文、挪威文、捷克文：Promethium（大部分大写）
- 法文：prométhium
- 西班牙文、意大利文：prometio
- 葡萄牙文：Promécio
- 波兰文：promet
- 加泰隆文：prometi
- 爱沙尼亚文：promeetium 和中文元素名字不一样的是欧文元素名字大部分是描述特色，其它：
- 20个左右来源于地名（全部欧美）：
- Germanium（锗）：德国。
- Yttrium(钇)、Terbium(铽)、Ytterbium（镱）：这三者都来源于瑞典小镇伊特比。
- 10个左右来源于人或神名，例：
- Curium （锔）：--夫人。
- Promethium（钷）：普罗米修斯，古希腊神话中偷火被处罚的神。

参看

- 元素周期表
- 元素列表
- ja:元素 ko:화학 원소 ms:Unsur kimia simple:Element th:ธาตุเคมี

隕石

隕石是未燃尽的流星体從太空掉落到地球或其它行星表面的物体。上面多半帶有地球上沒有，或是不常見的礦物組合，以及經過大氣層高速燃燒的痕跡。至於太空人登上外星球，如月球，所帶回來的則不叫隕石。而會稱為月球礦石。隕石根据所含化学成分不同，可以分为：
- 铁陨石（陨铁），主要含有铁和镍
- 石铁陨石（陨铁石），铁、镍和硅酸盐各占一半，数量甚少
- 石陨石（陨石），主要含有硅酸盐，也是最常见的一种隕石有大有小，最小的可能因燃燒變成微塵。大型的隕石撞擊到地表會留下撞擊的痕跡，就叫做隕石坑。2005年1月美國太空總署火星越野車機遇號在火星中央平原首次發現了地球以外天體上的隕石。行星闯入大气层后由于要经受高温高压,会产生炸裂,熔点较低的铁之类物质会被熔融分离成另一类陨石,所以主体陨石大都带有熔壳,跌落到地面大多成球状的或是扁圆的并通常带有解体口,这类陨石较为普遍。现在所发现的陨石上的组成都是由一致的地球上的元素组成的。在一些陨石当中曾发现有水，还在一些陨石当中发现了构成生命物质基本成分之一的氨基酸，因此有一种假说认为地球上最初的生命来自宇宙，是陨石将生命带给了地球。

参看

- 吉林陨石雨 Category:天体 category:矿物 ja:隕石 ko:운석 th:อุกกาบาต

Category:化学

化学是研究物质的性质、组成、结构和变化的自然科学。参看Wikipedia:化学首页。 Category:自然科学 als:Kategorie:Chemie ja:Category:化学 ko:분류:화학 ms:Category:Kimia th:Category:เคมี

Ed Felten

Edward William Felten (born March 25, 1963) is a professor of computer science and public affairs at Princeton University. Felten has done a variety of computer security research, including groundbreaking work on proof-carrying authentication but he is perhaps best known for his paper on the Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI) challenge.

Biography

Felten attended the California Institute of Technology and graduated with a degree in Physics in 1985. He worked as a staff programmer at Caltech from 1986 to 1989 on a parallel supercomputer project at Caltech. He then enrolled as a graduate student in Computer Science at the University of Washington. He was awarded an MS degree in 1991 and a PhD in 1993. His PhD thesis was on developing an automated protocol for communication between parallel processors. In 1993, he joined the faculty of Princeton University in the Department of Computer Science. He has served as a consultant to law firms, corporations, private foundations, and government agencies. His research involves computer security, and technology policy. He lives in Princeton, New Jersey with his family.

The SDMI challenge

As part of a contest in 2000, SDMI (Secure Digital Music Initiative) invited researchers and others to try and break the digital audio watermark technologies that they had devised. In a series of individual challenges, the participants were given a sample audio piece, with one of their watermarks embedded. If the participants sent back the sample with the watermark removed (and with less than an acceptable amount of signal loss, though this condition was not stated by SDMI), they would win that particular challenge. Felten was an initial participant of the contest. He chose to opt out of confidentiality agreements that would make his team eligible for the cash prize. Despite being given very little or no information about the watermarking technologies other than the audio samples, and having only three weeks to work with them (conditions which many consider an attempt to steeply stack the deck against the contestants), Felten and his team managed to modify the files sufficiently that SDMI's automated judging system declared the watermark removed. SDMI did not accept that Felten had succesfully broken the watermark according to the rules of the contest, noting that there was a requirement that the files lose no sound quality. They claimed that the automated judging result was inconclusive as a submission which simply wiped all the sounds off the file would have successfully removed the watermark, but would not meet the quality requirement.

Lawsuits

Felten's team developed a scientific paper explaining the methods used by his team in defeating the SDMI watermarks. Planning to present the paper at the Fourth International Information Hiding Workshop of 2001 in Pittsburgh, Felten alleged he was threatened with legal action by SDMI, the Recording Industry Association of America, and Verance Corporation, under the terms of the DMCA, on the argument that one of the technologies his team had broken were currently in use in the market. Felten withdrew the presentation from the workshop, reading a brief statement about the threats instead. SDMI and other copyright holders denied that they had ever threatened to sue Felten. Felten (with help from the Electronic Frontier Foundation) sued the groups, requesting a declaratory judgement ruling that their publication of the paper would be legal. The case was dismissed for a lack of standing with the judge noting that: :"The irony is that the defendants having said we're not going to sue you, the plaintiffs decided apparently to catalyze this action by bringing a suit themselves... :The plaintiffs liken themselves to modern Galileos persecuted by authorities. I fear that a more apt analogy would be to modern day Don Quixotes feeling threatened by windmills which they perceive as giants. There is no real controversy here.[http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/Felten_v_RIAA/20011128_hearing_transcript.html] Felten presented his paper at the USENIX security conference in 2001.The Justice Department has offered Felten and other researchers assurances that the DMCA does not threaten their work, and stated that the legal threats against them were invalid.

Current activities

Today, Felten is an active voice in the area of technology policy, having started the Freedom to Tinker weblog[http://www.freedom-to-tinker.com/] and testifying before Congress on copyright issues. The 2005 Sony CD copy protection controversy started when it was discovered on October 31, 2005 that Sony's XCP copy protection software on the CD Get Right With The Man by Van Zant contained hidden files that could damage the operating system, install spyware and make the user's computer vulnerable to attack when the CD was played on a Microsoft Windows-based PC. Sony then released a software patch to remove XCP. On November 15, 2005, it was discovered that Sony's method for removing XCP copy protection software from makes the computer more vulnerable to attack, as it essentially installed a rootkit in the form of an Active X control used by the uninstaller, left on the user's machine and set so as to allow any web page to execute arbitrary code without any need to authenticate to the machine or request the user's permission. Princeton University Computer Science Professor Ed Felten and graduate student J. Alex Halderman who explored the removal program said "The consequences of the flaw are severe,""It allows any Web page you visit to download, install, and run any code it likes on your computer. Any Web page can seize control of your computer; then it can do anything it likes. That's about as serious as a security flaw can get."[http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D8DT2KF02.htm?campaign_id=apn_tech_down&chan=tc]

Quote

:"Given a choice between dancing pigs and security, users will pick dancing pigs every time." (Gary McGraw and Edward Felten: Securing Java, ch1 pt 7 [http://www.securingjava.com/chapter-one/chapter-one-7.html])

External links

- [http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~felten/ Edward W. Felten homepage]
- [http://www.freedom-to-tinker.com/ Freedom to Tinker weblog]
- EFF: [http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/Felten_v_RIAA/ Felten, et al v. RIAA case archive]
- [http://www.verance.com Verance Corporation] Felten, Edward Felten, Edward Felten, Edward Felten, Edward Felten, Edward

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宇宙化学

元素

命名

中文命名

欧文命名

参看

隕石

参看

Category:化学

Category:天文学

Ed Felten

Biography

The SDMI challenge

Lawsuits

Current activities

Quote

See also

External links

Methodology