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Falling Action

Falling action

Falling action is one of the final structural points in the layout of a story. It is most often found in tragedies and short stories. It is the action following the turning point (sometimes referred to as "climax"). This is the link that gradually leads to the denouement or catastrophe, which is the last section in the structural layout. From this turning point onwards (most often in tragedies) the hero's fortunes are in decline. In these final stages of action there may be incidents that add new interest or intensity. However, even if it seems, nothing will put off the inevitable final catastrophe. A story's layout: Exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and the resolution (denouement or catastrophe) Category:Narratology

Tragedy

:This article refers to the literary work. For the punk band see Tragedy (band) A tragedy may be defined loosely as any work of fiction in which the protagonist suffers a fall in his or her fortunes, and ends in a worse state than that in which they began. Works as diverse as Oedipus Rex, Hamlet, Hedda Gabler and Scarface may thus be classified as tragedies. Throughout much of Western thought, however, tragedy has been defined in more precise terms, following the precepts set out by Aristotle: it is a form of drama characterized by seriousness and dignity, usually involving a conflict between a character and some higher power, such as the law, the gods, fate, or society.

Origin of Western tragedy

The origins of tragedy in the West are obscure, but it is certainly derived from the poetic and religious traditions of ancient Greece. Its roots may be traced more specifically to the dithyrambs, the chants and dances honoring the Greek god Dionysus, later known to the Romans as Bacchus. These drunken, ecstatic performances were said to have been created by the satyrs, half-goat beings who surrounded Dionysus in his revelry, and the Greek words tragos meaning "goat" and aeidein "to sing" were combined in the word tragoidia, "goat-songs," from which the word "tragedy" is derived. (Another theory of the word origin is that a goat was presented as a prize at a song contest; yet another has it come not from tragos but from traegein, which means `to gnaw'.) There is some dissent to the dithyrambic origins of tragedy mostly based in the differences between the shapes of their choruses and styles of dancing. a common decent from pre-hellenic fertility and burial rites has been suggested.

Theories of tragedy

The philosopher Aristotle theorized in his work The Poetics that tragedy results in a catharsis (emotional cleansing) of healing for the audience through their experience of these emotions in response to the suffering of the characters in the drama. Not all plays that are broadly categorized as "tragedies" result in this type of cathartic ending, though – some have neutral or even ambiguously happy endings. Exactly what constitutes a "tragedy", however, is a frequently debated matter. Some hold that any story with a sad ending is a tragedy, whereas others demand that the story fit a set of requirements (often based on Aristotle) to be considered a tragedy.

Greek tragedy

Greek literature boasts three great writers of tragedy whose works are extant: Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus. The largest festival for Greek tragedy was the Dionysia, for which competition prominent playwrights usually submitted three tragedies and one satyr play each. The Roman theater does not appear to have followed the same practice. Seneca adapted Greek stories, such as Phaedra, into Latin plays; however, Senecan tragedy has long been regarded as closet drama, meant to be read rather than performed. A favorite theatrical device of many ancient Greek tragedians was the ekkyklêma, a cart hidden behind the scenery which could be rolled out to display the aftermath of some event which had happened out of sight of the audience. This event was frequently a brutal murder of some sort, an act of violence which could not be effectively portrayed visually, but an action of which the other characters must see the effects in order for it to have meaning and emotional resonance. A prime example of the use of the ekkyklêma is after the murder of Agamemnon in the first play of Aeschylus' Oresteia, when the king's butchered body is wheeled out in a grand display for all to see. Variations on the ekkyklêma are used in tragedies and other forms to this day, as writers still find it a useful and often powerful device for showing the consequences of extreme human actions. Another such device was a crane, the mechane, which served to hoist a god or goddess on stage when they were supposed to arrive flying. This device gave origin to the phrase "deus ex machina" ("god out of a machine"), that is, the surprise intervention of an unforeseen external factor that changes the outcome of an event. Nietzsche dedicated his famous early book, The Birth of Tragedy, to a discussion of the origins of Greek tragedy. He traced the evolution of tragedy from early rituals, through the joining of Apollonian and Dionysian forces, until its early "death" in the hands of Socrates. In opposition to Schopenhauer, Nietzsche viewed tragedy as the art form of sensual acceptance of the terrors of reality and rejoicing in these terrors in love of fate (amor fati), and therefore as the antithesis to Socratic notion of strictly rational explanation , or the belief in the power of reason to unveil any and all of the mysteries of existence. Ironically, Socrates was fond of quoting from tragedies. A landmark study in its era, Nietzsche's book and its theories are considered spurious by most contemporary scholars of Greek tragedy.

Renaissance tragedy

In the English language, the most famous and most successful tragedies are those of William Shakespeare and his Elizabethan contemporaries. Shakespeare's tragedies include:
- Antony and Cleopatra
- Coriolanus
- Hamlet
- Julius Caesar
- King Lear
- Macbeth
- Othello
- Romeo and Juliet
- Timon of Athens
- Titus Andronicus A contemporary of Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, also wrote examples of tragedy in English, notably:
- Tragedy of Dr. Faustus
- Tamburlaine John Webster (1580?-1635?), also wrote famous plays of the genre:
- The Duchess of Malfi
- The White Devil In France, Jean Racine, who brought a new face to the genre with his works. When his play, Bérénice, was criticised for not containing any deaths, Racine disputed the conventional view of tragedy. His rival, Pierre Corneille, also made his mark on the world of tragedy with plays like Medée (1635) and Le Cid (1636).

Modern tragedy

In modern literature, the definition of tragedy has become less precise. The most fundamental change has been the rejection of Aristotle's dictum that true tragedy can only depict those with power and high status. Arthur Miller's essay 'Tragedy and the Common Man' exemplifies the modern belief that tragedy may also depict ordinary people in domestic surroundings. A Doll's House (1879) by the Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, which depicts the breakdown of a middle-class marriage, is an example of a more contemporary tragedy. Like Ibsen's other dramatic works, it has been translated into English and has enjoyed great popularity on the English and American stage. Although the most important American playwrights - Eugene O'Neill, Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller - wrote tragedies, the rarity of tragedy in the American theater may be owing in part to a certain form of idealism, often associated with Americans, that man is captain of his fate, a notion exemplified in the plays of Clyde Fitch and George S. Kaufmann. Arthur Miller, however, was a successful writer of American tragic plays, among them The Crucible and Death of a Salesman. Contemporary postmodern theater moves the ground for the execution of tragedy from the hubris of the individual tragic hero to the institutions, discourses and policies that shape the course of a character's life. The fate decreed from the gods of classical Greek tragedy is replaced by the will of institutions that shape the fate of the individual through policies and practices.

Tragedy in film

main article: Tragedy on screen The general belief in Hollywood that audiences prefer happy endings might seem to preclude the genre of tragedy from film. However, the popularity of several cinematic tragedies indicates that audiences can be receptive to the genre. Recent examples include Titanic and Gladiator, both of which can be seen as tragedies, at least by some definitions.

External links

- [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1122 Hamlet]
- [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1129 Macbeth]
- [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1531 Othello] Category:Drama Category:Ancient Greek theatre Category:Literary genres ko:비극 ja:ギリシア悲劇 simple:Tragedy

Climax (narrative)

The climax of a narrative work is its point of highest tension or drama. In classical culture, perhaps reflecting in part low literacy levels, analysis of fictional narratives focused on drama, and identified patterns for comedy (in the sense of drama with a "happy ending") and tragedy (in the sense of drama with an "unhappy ending"). The principles involved generally remain important in modern narrative literature, and include identification of the climax. In a prose work of fiction, the climax often resembles that of the classical comedy, occurring approximately two-thirds to three-quarters of the way through the text or performance, after the rising action and before the falling action. It is the moment of greatest danger for the hero(s) and usually consists of a seemingly inevitable prospect of failure, followed by a hard-to-anticipate recovery. While the novel, short story, poetry and drama are the focus of much literary analysis, late 20th century literary criticism also recognizes the important similarities, including the climax, of new genres like the feature film. Arguably, the punch line of a joke is a good analogue of the climax of other forms of fictional narrative, though the absence of any falling action is an essential variation probably reflecting the nature of humor. In many non-fictional narrative genres, even though the author lacks the same freedom to control the action and "plot", selection of subject matter, degree of detail, and emphasis permit an author to create similar structures. This can sometimes be recognizable even in some highly constrained genres, such as patient records and peer-reviewed scholarly writings, and need not amount to a breach of professional standards. Category:Narratology

Denouement

Denouement, in literature, is the end part of a story after the climax. It consists of tidily finishing story lines and settling the characters back to their normal lives. Note that denouement only occurs in happily ending stories. Tragic endings are termed catastrophe. There is a "turning point" between the climax and the denouement, termed "peripeteia". In An Inspector Calls, the denouement consists of Mr. Birling receiving a phone call saying that a police inspector is on his way to ask some questions. This comes as a shock to the audience as well as the characters because they had just found out that the police inspector Goole which just left was a fraud. This is considered a denouement because it occurs at the end of the story and serves to tie up any loose ends that might otherwise interfere with the audience's feeling of completion to the story. The term is borrowed into English from the French and is usually pronounced in the French way. This is related to the detective denouement. It is also the French word for when a superhero defeats a supervillain, or vice versa. Category:Narratology

Catastrophe

Catastrophe may mean:
- A disaster, sometimes used to mean an unusually severe disaster. (Most common meaning.)
- In ancient Greek tragedies, the solution of the plot.
- In the field of sociology it is defined as social change of an outstanding radical and rapid character, with highly magical explanations by victims and others. Related phrases:
- As a technical and a computer-related term, "catastrophic failure" usually refers to a failure within a system which leads to failure of the system as a whole.
- In insurance, catastrophe modeling is the process of projecting the losses which could be sustained due to an extreme natural or man-made catastrophic event.
- In mathematics, catastrophe theory studies how the behaviour of dynamical systems can change drastically with variations in certain parameters.
- In finance, catastrophe bonds are risk-linked securities used to transfer risks due to extreme natural or man-made disasters.

Hero

:This article is about the type of character. For other meanings, see Hero (disambiguation). :Distinguish heroine, "female hero," from heroin, the drug. heroin ]] ---- In mythology and folklore, a hero (male) or heroine (female) is an eminent character who quintessentially embodies key traits valued by its originating culture. The hero commonly possesses superhuman capabilities or idealized character traits which enable him or her to perform extraordinary, beneficial deeds (i.e., a "heroic deed") for which he or she is famous (compare villain).

Overview

A person normally becomes a hero by performing an extraordinary and praiseworthy deed. Traditional deeds are slaying of monsters and saving people from certain death. A hero normally fulfills the definitions of what is considered good and noble in the originating culture. However, in literature, particularly in tragedy, the hero may also have serious flaws which lead to a downfall, e.g. Hamlet. Sometimes a real person might achieve enough status to become a hero in people's minds. This is usually complemented by a rapid growth of myths around the person in question, often attributing to him or her powers beyond those of ordinary people. Some social commentators prescribe the need for heroes in times of social upheaval or national self-doubt, seeing a requirement for virtuous role models, especially for the young. Such myth-making may have worked better in the past: current trends may confuse heroes and their hero-worship with the cult of mere celebrity. Well-known heroes approach the gods in status in some cultures. The word hero comes from ancient Greek, where it describes a culture hero who figures in mythology. The Greek heroes were often the mythological characters who were the eponymous founders of Greek cities, states, and territories. These mythological heroes were not always role models or possessed of heroic virtue; many were demigods, the offspring of mortals and the gods. The age when heroes of this sort were active, and where the stories of Greek mythology were set, is frequently known as the "heroic age"; the heroic age ends shortly after the Trojan War is over and the legendary combatants have returned to home or exile. The classic hero often came with what Lord Raglan (a descendant of the FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan) termed a "potted biography" made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets with a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy sepulchres. Most European indigenous religions feature heroes in some form. Germanic, Hellene and Roman heroes, along with their attributes and forms of worship have been largely absorbed by the Orthodox and Catholic denominations of Christianity, forming the basis of modern day Saint reverring. In opera and musical theatre, the hero/heroine is often played by a tenor/soprano (more vulnerable characters are played by lyric voices while stronger characters are portrayed by spinto or dramatic voices.) In modern movies, the hero is often simply an ordinary person treated unfairly by society who prevails in the end. A book of recent fame, dealing with the telling of heroic stories, is called The Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph Campbell.

External links

- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/heroes.htm Exploring the Function of Heroes and Heroines in Children's Literature from around the World]
- [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/heroes/tour1.html The British Hero] - online exhibition from screenonline, a website of the British Film Institute, looking at British heroes of film and television.

Rising action

In the plot analysis of a typical play, book or film, rising action refers to the dynamic period after the exposition, when conflict has been introduced. Generally the protagonists will face more and more conflict, until a climax is reached and the conflict is resolved. Rising action very often comprises the majority of a work. Category:Narratology

Denouement

Catastrophe

Gaetano Cicognani

Hans eminense Gaetano Cicognani (født 26. november 1881 i Brisighella ved Faenza i Italia, død 5. februar 1962 i Roma), storebror til kardinal Amleto Giovanni Cicognani, var en av den katolske kirkes kardinaler. Han virket i Den romerske kurie og i det pavelige diplomati, og var apostolisk nuntius i Østerrike 1936-1938, og i Spania (den nasjonale regjering) 1938-1953. Han var prefekt for Kongregasjonen for ritene 1953-1954, og for Den apostoliske signatura 1954-1962. Han ble kreert til kardinal i 1953 av pave Pius XII. Han deltok ved konklavet 1958 som valgte pave Johannes XXIII. Cicognani, Gaetano Cicognani, Gaetano Cicognani, Gaetano Cicognani, Gaetano Cicognani, Gaetano

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Falling action

Tragedy

Origin of Western tragedy

Theories of tragedy

Greek tragedy

Renaissance tragedy

Modern tragedy

Tragedy in film

See also

External links

Climax (narrative)

Denouement

Catastrophe

Hero

Overview

See also

External links

Further reading

Rising action

Denouement

Catastrophe

Gaetano Cicognani

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