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| 銅 |
銅
铜是一种化学元素，它的化学符号是Cu，它的原子序数是29，是一种过渡金属。
性能
纯铜是一种坚韧、柔软、富有延展性的紫红色而有光泽的金属，1g的铜可以拉成3000m长的细丝，或压成10多平方米几乎透明的铜箔。纯铜的导电性和导热性很高，仅次于银，但比银要便宜得多。
铜的颜色很像金，但发红，铜离子的颜色为蓝色。有剧毒，不过，用特定加工法加工的铜没有毒。
銅在乾燥空氣中安定，可保持金屬光澤。但在潮溼空氣中，表面會生成一層銅绿[Cu(OH)2‧CuCO3]，保護內層的銅不再被氧化：
2Cu + O2 + CO2 + H2O → Cu(OH)2‧CuCO3
发现
铜是古代就已经知道的金属之一。一般认为人类知道的第一种金属是金，其次就是铜。铜在自然界储量非常丰富，并且加工方便。铜是人类用于生产的第一种金属，最初人们使用的只是存在于自然界中的天然单质铜，用石斧把它砍下来，便可以锤打成多种器物。随着生产的发展，只是使用天然铜制造的生产工具就不敷应用了，生产的发展促使人们找到了从铜矿中取得铜的方法。
含铜的矿物比较多见，大多具有鲜艳而引人注目的颜色，例如：金黄色的黄铜矿CuFeS2，鲜绿色的孔雀石CuCO3Cu(OH)2，深蓝色的石青2CuCO3Cu(OH)2，赤銅礦Cu2O，輝銅礦Cu2S等，把这些矿石在空气中焙烧后形成氧化铜CuO，再用碳还原，就得到金属铜：CuO + C → Cu + CO。另外，斑銅礦也是很常見的銅礦石。
纯铜制成的器物太软，易弯曲。人们发现把锡掺到铜裡去，可以制成铜锡合金──青铜。青铜比纯铜坚硬，使人们制成的劳动工具和武器有了很大改进，人类进入了青铜时代，结束了人类历史上的新石器时代。
用途
銅的最普遍用途在於製造電線，通常現時所用的電線都是由純銅製成，這是因為它的導電性和導熱性都僅次於銀，但卻比銀便宜得多。
而銅可用於製造多種合金，銅的重要合金有以下幾種：
- 黃銅
黃銅是銅與鋅的合金，因色黃而得名。黃銅的機械性能和耐磨性能都很好，可用於製造精密儀器、船舶的零件、槍炮的彈殼等。黃銅敲起來聲音好聽，因此鑼、鈸、鈴、號等樂器都是用黃銅制做的。
- 航海黃銅
銅與鋅、錫的合金，抗海水侵蝕，可用來製作船的零件、平衡器。
- 青銅
銅與錫的合金叫青銅，因色青而得名。青銅一般具有較好的耐腐蝕性、耐磨性、鑄造性和優良的機械性能。用於製造精密軸承、高壓軸承、船舶上抗海水腐蝕的機械零件以及各種板材、管材、棒材等。青銅還有一個反常的特性——“熱縮冷脹”，用來鑄造塑像，冷卻後膨脹，可以使眉目更清楚。
- 磷青銅
銅與錫、磷的合金，堅硬，可製彈簧。
- 白銅
白銅是銅與鎳的合金，其色澤和銀一樣，銀光閃閃，不易生銹。常用於製造電器、儀錶和裝飾品。
- 十八開金（18K金）
6/24的銅與18/24的金的合金。紅黃色，硬度大，可用來製作首飾、裝飾品。
category:礦物
ja:銅
ko:구리
simple:Copper
th:ทองแดง
元素: 這裡討論化學元素。數學上的元素，請參閱集合。
元素指自然界中一百多种基本的金属和非金属物质，它们只由一种原子组成，其原子中的每一核子具有同样数量的質子，用一般的化学方法不能使之变得更为简单，并且单独地或组合地构成一切物质。是化学元素的简称。
命名
中文命名
元素以部首来表示常溫(298K)時之物态：
- “钅”为固体金属。例：铜、铑
- “石”为类金属。例：硅、碳
- “--”为气体。例：氧、氟
- “氵”和“水”为液体。例：汞、溴
除了从古代中国就发现而且常用的元素（金、银、铜、铁、铂、锡、硫、碳、硼、汞、铅），元素的名称是十九、二十世纪创造的，组成由个部首和表示读音的部分。读音部分几乎全部是大约根据欧洲和北美洲现代或中古化学家或地方的名称（参见#欧文命名）的第一个音节，例如：
- Er（Erbium）＝钅＋耳→铒
- Nd（Neodymium，）＝钅＋女→钕
- Eu（Europium）＝钅＋有→铕
- Ka（Kalium）＝钅＋甲→钾
- Na（Natrium）＝钅＋内→钠
- Sb（Stibium）＝钅＋弟→锑（用第一音节的一部分）
- I（Iodine）＝石＋典→碘（用最后音节）
- Ar（Argon）＝--＋亚→氩（用第一音节的一部分）
少数部分元素中文名字是描述特色：
- 溴：味道臭
- 氯：颜色绿
- 氢：重量轻
- 氮：“淡”取冲淡空气之意
- 磷：发磷光或磷火
- 氧：“养”取支持生命之意
欧文命名
因为欧洲语文有密切的关系，除了那些各语文从远古就知的，所用的元素名称都是非常类似，因为科学名称都来源于新拉丁文。大部分元素结尾是“-ium”，一些罗马语系语文结尾“-io”。例如，钷在常见欧文是：
- 新拉丁文、英文、德文、荷兰文、丹麦文、瑞典文、挪威文、捷克文：Promethium（大部分大写）
- 法文：prométhium
- 西班牙文、意大利文：prometio
- 葡萄牙文：Promécio
- 波兰文：promet
- 加泰隆文：prometi
- 爱沙尼亚文：promeetium
和中文元素名字不一样的是欧文元素名字大部分是描述特色，其它：
- 20个左右来源于地名（全部欧美）：
- Germanium（锗）：德国。
- Yttrium(钇)、Terbium(铽)、Ytterbium（镱）：这三者都来源于瑞典小镇伊特比。
- 10个左右来源于人或神名，例：
- Curium （锔）：--夫人。
- Promethium（钷）：普罗米修斯，古希腊神话中偷火被处罚的神。
参看
- 元素周期表
- 元素列表
-
ja:元素
ko:화학 원소
ms:Unsur kimia
simple:Element
th:ธาตุเคมี
原子序数原子序数是一个原子核内质子的数量。拥有同一原子序数的原子属于同一化学元素。原子序数的符号是Z。
一般原子序数被写在元素符号的左下方：
1H是氢，8O是氧。
但因为一个元素的原子序数总是确定的，因此这个值很少被这样写出来。
德米特里·门捷列夫在制定他的元素周期表时发现，假如他将元素按其原子核质量来排列会出现一些不规则的情况。比如碲的原子核比碘重，但从化学性能上来说，碲明显是与氧、硫、硒一族的，而碘与氟、氯、溴是一族的，也就是说，碘要排在碲之后。1913年亨利·莫斯莱发现这个异常的解决方法是不按原子重量，而按原子核的电荷数，既原子序数来排列。
另見
- 元素周期表
- 元素列表
Category:化学
Category:化学元素
als:Ordnungszahl
ja:原子番号
ko:원자 번호
simple:Atomic number
th:เลขอะตอม
孔雀石碱式碳酸铜化学式为Cu2CO3(OH)2，又名孔雀石，是一种名贵的矿物宝石。它是铜与空气中的氧气、二氧化碳和水等物质反应产生的物质，又称铜锈，颜色翠绿。在空气中加热会分解为氧化铜、水和二氧化碳。
category:无机化合物
青铜青铜是红铜加入锡或铅的合金，因颜色青灰，被称为青铜。较红铜软且熔点高，为1083℃。青铜铸造性好，耐磨且化学性质稳定。
Category:金屬材料
ja:青銅
ko:청동
新石器时代新石器時代在考古學上是石器時代的最後一個階段。以磨製石器為主，大約從1萬年前開始，結束時間從距今5000多年至2000多年不等。
特點
就在這個時代，人類開始從事農業和畜牧，將植物的結實加以播種，並把野生動物馴服以供食用。人類不再只依賴大自然提供食物，籨因此其食物來源變得穩定。同時農業與畜牧的經營也使人類由逐水草而居變為定居下來，節省下更多的時間和精力，而人類亦已經能夠製作陶器、紡織。在這樣的基礎上，人類生活得到了更進一步的改善，開始關注文化事業的發展，使人類開始出現文明。
中國
在中國，這個時代出現了仰韶文化、河姆渡文化和細石器文化等文明。
後續時代
在新石器時代完結後，人類開始進入銅器時代。
請參見
- 石器時代
- 舊石器時代
- 中石器時代
Category:考古学
ko:신석기 시대
合金合金就是两种或两种以上的金属（或金属跟非金属）熔合而成的具有金属特性的物质。一般由各组分熔合成均匀的液体，再经冷凝而得。
Category:金属材料
ja:合金
ko:합금
ms:Aloi
simple:Alloy
List of important publications in computer science
On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem
- Alan Turing
- Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (submitted May 28 1936, read November 12 1936), pp 230–265. Errata appeared in Series 2, 43 (1937), pp 544–546.
- [http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp Online version (MS IExplorer only)]
- [http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/research/areas/ieg/e-library/sources/tp2-ie.pdf PDF version of above page (verified to display properly with xpdf and acroread)]
Description: This article set the limits of computer science.
It defined the Turing Machine, a model for all computations.
On the other hand it proved the undecidability of the halting problem and Entscheidungsproblem and by doing so found the limits of possible computation.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
On certain formal properties of grammars
- Noam Chomsky
- Information and Control 2 (1959), 137–167.
Description: The Chomsky hierarchy, a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars that generate formal languages was introduced.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Finite automata and their decision problem
- Michael O. Rabin and Dana S. Scott
- IBM J. Research and Development, 3:114–125, 1959.
- [http://domino.research.ibm.com/tchjr/journalindex.nsf/0/cdf6b2949432156385256bfa00683d63?OpenDocument Online version]
Description: Mathematical treatment of automata, proof of core properties, and definition of non-deterministic finite automaton
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence, Introduction
Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation
- John E. Hopcroft
- Jeffrey D. Ullman
- Addison-Wesley, 1979, ISBN 0-201-02988-X
Description: A popular textbook.
Importance: Introduction
Computability: An introduction to recursive function theory
- Nigel J. Cutland
- Cambridge University Press, 1980, ISBN 0-521-29465-7
Description: A popular textbook.
Importance: Introduction
On the computational complexity of algorithms
- Juris Hartmanis
- Richard Stearns
- Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 117 (1965), 285–306.
Description: This paper gave computational complexity its name and seed.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
The complexity of theorem proving procedures
- S. A. Cook
- Proceedings of the 3rd Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (1971), pp. 151–158.
Description: This paper introduced the concept of NP-Completeness and proved that Boolean satisfiability problem(SAT) is NP-Complete.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Reducibility among combinatorial problems
- R. M. Karp
- In R. E. Miller and J. W. Thatcher, editors, Complexity of Computer Computations, pages 85–103. Plenum Press, New York, NY, 1972.
Description: This paper showed that 21 different problems are NP-Complete and showed the importance of the concept.
Importance: Influence
Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness
- Michael R. Garey, David S. Johnson
- Freeman, New York, 1979
- ISBN 0716710455
Description: The main importance of this book is due to its extensive list of more than 300 NP-Complete problems. This list became a common reference and definition. It is important to note that though the book was published only few years after the concept was defined such an extensive list was found.
Importance: Introduction, Influence, Latest and greatest
- Andrew Chi-Chih Yao
- Proc. 23rd Symposium on the Foundations of Computer Science (1982), pp. 80–91
Description: This paper introduced the concept of Trapdoor functions and described some of its application, like in cryptography.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough
The Knowledge Complexity of Interactive Proof Systems
- Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, Charles Rackoff
- SIAM Journal of Computing, 18(1):186–208, February 1989.
Description: This paper introduced the concept of zero knowledge.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough
How to Construct Random Functions
- Oded Goldreich, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali
- Journal of the ACM, 33(4), 1984, 792-807.
- [http://theory.lcs.mit.edu/~cis/pubs/shafi/1986-jacm.pdf Online copy (PDF)]
Description: This paper showed that the existence of one way functions leads to computational randomness.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Latest and greatest, Influence
- Adi Shamir
- Journal of the ACM, 39(4):869–877, 1992.
Description: IP is a complexity class whose characterization is quite different from the usual time/space bounded computational classes.
In this paper Shamir showed the IP = PSPACE, hence each problem in one complexity class is solvable in the other.
Importance: Breakthrough
- C.H. Papadimitriou
- Addison-Wesley, 1994. ISBN 0201530821
Description: This book provides a very good introduction to Computational Complexity
Importance: Introduction
A machine program for theorem proving
- M. Davis, G. Logemann, D. Loveland
- Communications of the ACM, 5:394–397, 1962.
Description: The DLL algorithm. The basic algorithm for SAT and other NP-Complete problems.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
A Machine-Oriented Logic Based on the Resolution Principle
- J. Alan Robinson
- Communications of the ACM, 5:23–41, 1965.
Description: First description of resolution and unification used in theorem proving; used in Prolog & logic programming.
Importance: Topic Creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Optimization by simulated annealing
- Kirkpatrick, S., Gelatt, C., & Vecchi, M.
- Science, Number 4598, 13, pages 671–680, May 1983.
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/kirkpatrick83optimization.html Online copy]
Description: A very common heuristic for NP-Complete problems.
Importance: Influence
- Donald Knuth
Description: This set of textbooks used to be very popular algorithms books. The algorithms were written in both English and MIX assembly language. Due to that, the algorithms were both understandable and very precise. However, they are not "structured", which can make them difficult to translate to modern structured programming languages.
Importance: Influence
Introduction to Algorithms
- Thomas H. Cormen
- Charles E. Leiserson
- Ronald L. Rivest
- Clifford Stein
- MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. 2nd Edition, 2001. 1st Edition (with first three authors) published in 1991.
Description: As its name indicates this textbook is a very good introduction to algorithms. This book became so popular that it is almost the de facto standard for basic algorithms teaching.
Importance: Introduction, Influence
The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms
- Alfred V. Aho
- John E. Hopcroft
- Jeffrey D. Ullman
- Addison-Wesley, 1974, ISBN 0-201-00029-6
Description: One of the standard texts on algorithms for the period of approximately 1975–1985.
Importance: Influence, Introduction
Algorithms
- Robert Sedgewick
- Addison-Wesley, 1983, ISBN 0-201-06672-6
Description: A very popular text on algorithms in the late 1980s. It was more accessible and readable (but more elementary) than Aho, Hopcroft, and Ullman. There are more recent editions.
Importance: Influence
Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs
- Niklaus Wirth
- Prentice-Hall, 1976, ISBN 0-13-022418-9
Description: An early, influential book on algorithms and data structures, with implementations in Pascal.
Importance: Influence
A formal theory of inductive inference
- Ray Solomonoff
- Information and Control, vol. 7, pp. 1–22, March 1964; pp. 224–254, June 1964.
Description: This was the beginning of Algorithmic information theory and Kolmogorov complexity. Note that though Kolmogorov complexity is named after Andrey Kolmogorov, he said that the seeds of that idea are due to Ray Solomonoff. Andrey Kolmogorov contributed a lot to this area but in later articles.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Algorithmic information theory
- Gregory Chaitin
- IBM Journal of Research and Development 21 (1977), pp. 350–359, 496.
- [http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTCS/chaitin/ibm.pdf Online version]
Description: A good introduction to Algorithmic information theory by one of the important people in the area.
Importance: Introduction
- C.E. Shannon
- Bell System Technical Journal, 27:379–423,623–656, 1948
- [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: This paper created communication theory and information theory.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Introduction, Influence
Error detecting and error correcting codes
- Richard Hamming
- Bell Systems Technical Journal, vol. 29, pp. 147–160, 1950
- [http://www.engelschall.com/~sb/hamming/?page=1 Online copy]
Description: In this paper, Hamming introduced the idea of error-correcting code.
He created the Hamming code and the Hamming distance and developed methods for code optimality proofs.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Introduction, Influence
A Method for the Construction of Minimum Redundancy Codes
- David A. Huffman
- Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, September 1952, Volume 40, Number 9, pp. 1098–1101.
Description: The Huffman coding.
Importance: Influence, Breakthrough
A Universal Algorithm for Sequential Data Compression
- Jacob Ziv
- Abraham Lempel
- IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 337–343.
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/ziv77universal.html Online copy]
Description: The LZ77 compression algorithm.
Importance: Influence, Breakthrough
Elements of Information Theory
- T. M. Cover
- J. A. Thomas
- Wiley, 1991.
Description: A good and popular introduction to information theory.
Importance: Influence, Introduction
An experimental timesharing system.
- Fernando J. Corbató,M. Merwin-Daggett, and R.C. Daley
- Proceedings of the AFIPS FJCC, pages 335–344, 1962.
- [http://larch-www.lcs.mit.edu:8001/~corbato/sjcc62/ Online copy (HTML)]
Description: This paper discuss time-sharing as a method of sharing computer resource.
This idea changed the interaction with computer systems.
Importance: Influence
The UNIX Time-Sharing System
- Dennis M. Ritchie and Ken Thompson
- Communications of the ACM 7, 7, July 1974.
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/ritchie74unix.html Online copy (few formats)]
Description: The Unix operating system and its principles were described in this paper. The main importance is not of the paper but of the operating system, which had tremendous effect on operating system and computer technology.
Importance: Influence, Breakthrough
Operating Systems: Design and implementation
- Andrew S. Tanenbaum
- Prentice Hall, 1987
Description: Theoretical as well as practical textbook of the operating systems, with Minix as the example. The book is often referred to as the Minix bible, as it includes the full source.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Scheduling Techniques for Concurrent Systems
- J. K. Ousterhout
- Proceedings of Third International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems, 1982, 22—30.
Description: Algorithms for coscheduling of related processes were given
Importance: Influence
A relational model for large shared data bank
- E. F. Codd
- Communications of the ACM, 13(6):377–387, June 1970
Description: This paper introduced the relational model for databases.
This model became the number one model.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
The Entity Relationship Model – Towards a Unified View of Data
- P.P-S. Chen
- ACM Transactions on Database Systems, Vol. 1, No. 1, March 1976, pp. 9–36
Description: This paper introduced the Entity-relationship diagram(ERD) method of database design.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Mining association rules between sets of items in large databases
- Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imielinski, Arun Swami
- Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conference on Management of Data, pages 207–216, Washington, D.C., May 1993
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/agrawal93mining.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: Association rules, a very common method for data mining.
Importance: Topic creator, Introduction, Influence
- C.E. Shannon
- " Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", Bell System Technical Journal, vol.28-4, page 656–715, 1949.
- [http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~jkong/research/security/shannon1949.pdf Online copy (PDF)]
Description: Information theory based analysis of cryptography.
Importance: Breakthrough, Introduction, Influence
New directions in cryptography
- W.Diffie, M.E.Hellman
- IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, IT-22, 6, 1976, pp. 644–654
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/340126.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: This paper suggested public key cryptography and presented Diffie-Hellman key exchange.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Introduction, Influence, Latest and greatest (A great paper from every perspective...)
A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public Key Cryptosystems
- R. Rivest, A. Shamir, L. Adleman
- Communications of the ACM, Vol. 21 (2), 1978, pages 120–126
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/rivest78method.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: The RSA encryption method. The first public key encryption method.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
How to Share a Secret
- Shamir, A.
- Communications of the ACM, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 612–613 (November 1979)
- [http://szabo.best.vwh.net/secret.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: A safe method for sharing a secret.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough
Computing machinery and intelligence
- Alan Turing
- Mind, 59:433–460, 1950.
- [http://www.abelard.org/turpap/turpap.htm Online copy]
Description: This paper discusses whether machine can think and suggested
the Turing test as a method for checking it. In a sense, this was the beginning of artificial intelligence
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence
- John McCarthy
- Marvin Minsky
- N. Rochester
- C.E. Shannon
- [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html Online copy]
Description: This summer research proposal marks the areas of research in artificial intelligence since then. It was a very long summer.
Importance: Influence
Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems: Networks of Plausible Inference
- Judea Pearl
- ISBN: 1558604790 Publisher: Morgan Kaufmann Pub, 1988
Description: This book introduced Bayesian methods to AI.
Importance: Topic creator, Influence
- Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig
- Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1995, ISBN 0130803022
- [http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ Textbook's website]
Description: The standard textbook in Artificial Intelligence. The authors claim that it used in over 900 colleges and universities in 89 countries.
Importance: Introduction, Influence
Unformated list of reading considered as seminal works in the field of artificial intelligence
- Gödel, Escher, Bach : An Eternal Golden Braid by Douglas R. Hofstadter
- Understanding Understanding: Essays on Cybernetics and Cognition by Heinz von Foerster
- In the Image of the Brain: Breaking the Barrier Between Human Mind and Intelligent Machines by Jim Jubak
- Today's Computers, Intelligent Machines and Our Future by Hans Moravec, Stanford University
- The Society of Mind by Marvin Minsky, ISBN 0671657135 15 March 1998
- Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert ISBN 0262631113 28 December 1987
- The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego and Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think by HP Newquist ISBN 0672304120.
- What Computers Still Can't Do: A Critique of Artificial Reason by Hubert L. Dreyfus ISBN 0262041340.
[http://www.techbookreport.com/AIIndex.html TechBookReport]
Language identification in the limit
- E. M. Gold
- Information and Control, 10:447–474, 1967
Description: This paper created Algorithmic learning theory.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
On the uniform convergence of relative frequencies of events to their probabilities
- V. Vapnik, A. Chervonenkis
- Theory of Probability and its Applications, 16(2):264--280, 1971
Description: Computational learning theory, VC theory, statistical uniform convergence and the VC dimension.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
A theory of the learnable
- Leslie Valiant
- Communications of the ACM, 27(11):1134–1142 (1984)
Description: The Probably approximately correct learning (PAC learning) framework.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Learnability and the Vapnik-Chervonenkis dimension
- A. Blumer
- A. Ehrenfeucht
- D. Haussler
- M. K. Warmuth
- Journal of the ACM, 36(4):929–965, 1989.
Description: The complete characterization of PAC learnability using the VC dimension.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Cryptographic limitations on learning boolean formulae and finite automata
- M. Kearns
- L. G. Valiant
- In Proceedings of the 21st Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, pages 433–444, New York. ACM.
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/kearns89cryptographic.html Online version(HTML)]
Description: Proving negative results for PAC learning.
Importance: Influence
The strength of weak learnability
- Robert E. Schapire
- Machine Learning, 5(2):197–227, 1990.
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/schapire90strength.html Online version(HTML)]
Description: Proving that weak and strong learnability are equivalent in the noise free PAC framework.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Learning in the presence of malicious errors
- Michael Kearns
- Ming Li
- Journal on Computing, 22(4):807–837, August 1993.
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/kearns93learning.html Online version(HTML)]
Description: Proving possibility and imposibility result in the malicious errors framework.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
- C.D. Kuglin and D.C. Hines
- IEEE 1975 Conference on Cybernetics and Society, 1975, New York, pp. 163–165, September
Description: A correlation method based upon the inverse Fourier transform
Importance: Influence
- Lucas, B.D. and Kanade, T.
- Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 674–679,Vancouver, Canada,1981
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lucas81iterative.html Online version]
Description: This paper provides efficient technique for image registration
Importance: Influence
The Laplacian Pyramid as a compact image code
- Peter J. Burt and Edward H. Adelson
- IEEE Transactions on Communications, volume = "COM-31,4", pp. 532–540, 1983.
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/burt83laplacian.html Online version]
Description: A technique for image encoding using local operators of many scales
Importance: Influence
Snakes: Active contour models
- Michael Kass, Andrew Witkin, and Demetri Terzopoulos
- International Journal of Computer Vision, 1(4):321–331, 1988. (Marr Prize Special Issue)
- [http://www.mrl.nyu.edu/~dt/papers/ijcv88/ijcv88.pdf Online version]
Description: An interactive variational technique for image segmentation and visual tracking
Importance: Influence, topic creator
Condensation -- conditional density propagation for visual tracking
- M. Isard and A. Blake
- International Journal of Computer Vision, 29(1):5–28, 1998.
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/isard98condensation.html Online version]
Description: A technique for visual tracking
Importance: Influence
YACC: Yet another compiler-compiler
- Stephen C. Johnson
- Unix Programmer's Manual Vol 2b, 1979
- [http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/johnson79yacc.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: Yacc is a tool that made compiler writing much easier.
Importance: Influence
Compilers: Principles, Techniques and Tools
- Alfred V. Aho
- Ravi Sethi
- Jeffrey D. Ullman
- Addison-Wesley, 1986. ISBN 0201100886
Description: This book became a classic in compiler writing. It is also known as the Dragon book, after the (red) dragon that appears on its cover.
Importance: Introduction, Influence
Assigning meanings to programs
- Robert W. Floyd
- Mathematical Aspects of Computer Science, pages 19–32, 1967
Description: Introduced the idea of attaching logical assertions to points in a program in order to prove its correctness and influenced C. A. R. Hoare's seminal work on program verification.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence, Introduction
An axiomatic basis for computer programming
- C. Antony R. Hoare
- Communications of the ACM, 12:576–580, 1969
Description: Axiomatic foundation for program correctness proofs was laid. The importance of the use of formal methods is explained.
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence, Introduction
The temporal logic of programs
- Amir Pnueli
- In Proc. 18th IEEE Symposium on Foundation of Computer Science, pages 46–57, 1977.
Description: The use of temporal logic was suggested as a method for formal verification.
Importance: Topic creator, Influence
Abstract interpretation: a unified lattice model for static analysis of programs by construction or approximation of fixpoints
- Patrick and Radhia Cousot
- In Proc. 4th ACM Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages, 238–252, 1977
Description: Introducing abstract interpretation for the verification of computer programs by sound approximations.
Importance: Topic creator, Influence.
Model Checking
- Edmund M. Clarke, Orna Grumberg, Doron A. Peled
- MIT Press, 1999
Description: An overview of Model checking, an automatic formal verification technique
Importance: Introduction
History of Computation
The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann
- Herman H. Goldstine
- Princton University Press, 1972, ISBN 0-691-08104-2
Description: Perhaps the first book on the history of computation.
Importance:
A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century
edited by:
- Nicholas Metropolis
- J. Howlett
- Gian-Carlo Rota
- Academic Press, 1980, ISBN 0-12-491650-3
Description: Several chapters by pioneers of computing.
Importance:
Software engineering: Report of a conference sponsored by the NATO Science Committee
- Peter Naur, Brian Randell (eds.)
- Garmisch, Germany, 7–11 October 1968, Brussels, Scientific Affairs Division, NATO (1969) 231pp.
- [http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/brian.randell/NATO/nato1968.PDF Online copy (PDF)]
Description: Conference of leading figures in sofware field circa 1968
Importance: Defined the field of Software engineering
Go To Statement Considered Harmful
- Dijkstra, E. W.
- Communications of the ACM, 11(3):147–148, March 1968
- [http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ Online copy (HTML)]
Description: Don't use goto – the beginning of structured programming.
Importance: Topic creator, Influence
On the criteria to be used in decomposing systems into modules
- David Parnas
- Communications of the ACM, December:1053–1058, December 1972.
- [http://www.acm.org/classics/may96/ Online copy (HTML)]
Description: The importance of modularization and information hiding.
Importance: Influence
- Brooks, Jr., F. P.
- Addison Wesley Professional. 2nd edition, 1995.
Description: Throwing more people at the task will not speed its completion...
Importance: Influence
No Silver Bullet: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering
- Brooks, Jr., F. P.
- Computer, 20(4):10–19, April 1987
- [http://www.virtualschool.edu/mon/SoftwareEngineering/BrooksNoSilverBullet.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: We will keep having problems with software...
Importance: Influence
- Raymond, E.S.
- First Monday, 3, 3 (March 1998)
- [http://www.redhat.com/support/wpapers/community/cathedral/whitepaper_cathedral.html Online copy (HTML)]
Description: Open source methodology.
Importance: Influence
Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object Oriented Software
- E. Gamma, R. Helm, R. Johnson, J. Vlissides
- Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1995.
Description: This book was the first to define and list design patterns in computer science
Importance: Topic creator, Influence
The Structure of "THE"-Multiprogramming System
- Dijkstra, E. W.
- Communication of the ACM, Vol. 11, No. 5 May 1968, pp. 345–346
- [http://www.acm.org/classics/mar96/ Online copy (HTML)]
Description: The introduction of basic primitives like mutex as the basis of multiprocessing programming.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
How to Make a Multiprocessor Computer That Correctly Executes Multiprocess Programs
- Leslie Lamport
- IEEE Transactions on Computers, volume C-28, number 9, pp. 690–691, September 1979.
Description: Requirements that guarantee the correct execution of multi process programs were defined.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
LogP: Towards a realistic model of parallel computation
- D. Culler, R. Karp, D. Patterson, A. Sahay, K. E. Schauser, E. Santos, R. Subramonian, and T. von Eicken
- In Proceedings 4th ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles and Practice of Parallel Programming, May 1993.
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/culler93logp.html Online version]
Description: The LogP framework for parallel computing was suggested. The LogP provided a way to bridge the gap between theoretical analysis of algorithm and building real world systems.
Importance: Influence
Ethernet: Distributed packet switching for local computer networks
- R.M. Metcalfe, D.R. Boggs
- Communications of the ACM 19, 7 (July 1976), 395–404
- [http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/ Online copy (HTML)]
Description: The Ethernet protocol.
Importance: Influence, Latest and greatest
A Dynamic Network Architecture
- Sean W. O'Malley, Larry L. Peterson
- ACM Transactions on Computer Systems, 10(2), May 1992
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/malley92dynamic.html Online copy]
Description: Network software in distributed systems.
Importance: Influence
Computer Networks
- Andrew S. Tanenbaum
- Prentice Hall, mid '80s
Description: Textbook description of all network standards at the time. In 2005, it is in its fourth edition, include all current networking technology.
Importance: Influence
The Byzantine Generals Problem
- Leslie Lamport, Robert Shostak, Marshall Pease
- Advances in Ultra-Dependable Distributed Systems, N. Suri, C. J. Walter, and M. M. Hugue (Eds.), IEEE Computer Society Press
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lamport82byzantine.html Online version]
Description: Impossibility result for distributed computing, see Byzantine failure.
Importance: Influence, Breakthrough
See also
- List of publications in science
- Notable publications in software engineering
- List of open problems in computer science
- DBLP (Digital Bibliography & Library Project)
- The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies
External links
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/articles.html Most cited articles in Computer Science]
Academic Search Engines
- [http://scholar.google.com/ Google Scholar]
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/ CiteSeer]
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Computer science
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